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Street j^allway Journal

Vol. XXV.

NEW YORK, SATURDAY, APRIL 1, 1905.

No. 13.

Published Eveky Saturday by the

McGraw Publishing Company

Main Office:

NEW YORK, Engineering Building, 114 Liberty Street.

Bkanch Offices: t' j ,

Chicago: Monadnock Block. |1 ^ ^.j

Philadelphia: 929 Chestnut Street. M'''

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Cable Address, "Stryjourn, New York"; "Stryjoum, London" — Lieber's Code

used.

Copyright, 1905, McGraw Publishing Co.

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Of this issue of the Street Raikvay Journal 8300 copies arc printed. Total circulation for 1905, to date, 107,250 copies — an average of 8250 copies per week.

Annealing Trolley Wires

The practice of connecting together different sections of trolley wire in a large city system has hoth advocates and op- ponents. There are a few who will maintain that it is in every way a desiral)le practice to bridge across the various section insulators with jumpers of one kind and another, but many companies have been driven to it by either a temporary or chronic lack of sufficient feeder copper. Theoretically, the ideal method is to keep each section of trolley wire entirely in- sulated from every other section and with a circuit breaker at the power station for each section, so that the break- ing and grounding of the trolley wire in one section will in no way interfere with the operation of the balance of the system. It will frequently happen, however, -that cars will get bunched on one section so as to cause an excessive dro]) of potential

while adjoining sections may be very lightly loaded. In order to enable the feeders on one section to be assisted by those on adjoining sections, it has become a very common practice to put jumpers around the section insulators so as to connect to- gether the different sections through the medium of fuses or automatic circuit breakers. Thus current can be fed into a section from adjoining sections as well as from its own feeder inVcase it has an exceptionally heavy load, while at the samt t'infe, if there is an actual dead ground, the circuit breakers w^'ll open so as to isolate the grounded section. The main ob- V jection to this practice is that it requires a much heavier cur- rent on the trolley line to open all the circuit breakers than it would to open simply the feeder circuit breakers supplying it, because the trolley wire section has three sources of supply, viz., its own feeder circuit breaker and the circuit breaker at each end connecting it with the adjoining section.

On a large city system in practice, this objection may mean that sufficient current can flow through the trolley wire to anneal long lengths of it before the circuit breakers open. Its life after such an annealing process is, of course, no Ijetter than would be that of a soft drawn wire. In fact, it is almost ruined for trolley service. The current required on the modern city railway system in the downtown districts when large numbers of cars of about 40 tons weight are operated, is such as to make it necessary to set all circuit breakers for very heavy current, and it sometimes does not take a great deal more than the regu- lar current to anneal the wire. Thus, a trolley wire may be carrying a heavy current to supply the regular load imposed by the cars, and in addition a ground may come on the line at some adjoining section, which may not be enough to open the circuit breaker between the sections, but still be sufficient to anneal some of the trolley wire.

One practice which gives some of the advantages of -utilizing all the feeder copper at points of greatest load, while at the same time lessening the danger of ruining considerable lengths of trolley wire, is that of placing equalizers between the feed wires at various points and inserting automatic circuit breakers or fuses in these equalizers. The trolley wire is then not called upon to carry current to any other section than its own. Of course, if the trolley line is not paralleled with a sufficiently ■ heavy feeder where the traffic is very heavy near a power sta- tion, and the trolley wire is thus compelled to carry the total current for some distance, it will cause such an excessive drop in the wire as to anneal it in ordinary service, InU such condi- tions are not often found.

xA-nother cause of annealed trolley wire is the use of soldered ears for supporting the wire. The wear is always greatest at the points of support in any event, and the annealing of the wire by a soldering torch at this point causes a considerable shortening of the life of the wire. It is this that has caused mechanical clamps and clips to be so popular with line super- intendents, and incidentally has helped the introduction of fig- ure 8 and grooved sections of trolley wire, wliich arc well adapted to mechanical clamps.

82378

576

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

A Record of the Zossen Tests

More than usual interest attaches to the record of the Ber- hn-Zossen tests of 1903, which has just become available through an English translation, for which Dr. Louis Bell has prepared an introduction discussing the general subject of train resistance. It is difficult to-day to estimate at its proper value the pioneering work of which this volume is the record. We are so used to looking at things through the glasses of current habits that we unconsciously distort all things which are un- familiar in outline. A new conception or invention is or is not greeted with enthusiasm according to its relation to the precon- ceived category of useful things. If it clearly belongs in the conventional list of things approved it meets an enthusiastic reception. Otherwise it is stigmatized as "theoretical" until long after it has been proved successful, and then is damned as "uncommercial" by every interest that would be put to trou- ble by its competition. We need not go outside the line of rail- way history to grasp the truth of this view. The volume itself gives a striking bit of inner history in telling the story of the Berlin-Zossen Railway, and of the bitter opposition it had to meet from every source — beginning with a doubtful King and ending with the abuse of exasperated stage owners. No doubt there were fervent appeals to government to protect "vested in- terests" by preventing this wanton destruction of their earning capacity, appeals which have a strangely familiar note even to us of the twentieth century, used to the march of improve- ments. The Zossen tests strike deep at the commonplace com- mercial methods of transportation to which the world is just now accustomed. They were made for the very purpose of proving that the world's present methods, however useful, generally are behind the age in the matter of speed.

It is a somewhat singular thing that the speed records on railways are by no means always of recent making. Some of them run back nearly half a century, and many of th^-m more than a decade, in spite of all recent improvements. Even now the number of trains in the world that actually are scheduled above 45 m.p.h. is very small indeed, and the trains on long runs at anywhere near that speed are even rarer. On all but the most important lines there is the same old succession of "peanut trains" as twenty-five years ago, in spite of the very great improvement in general accommodations. The fact is that the subsidiary things of travel have been wonderfully de- veloped, while the main thing — getting there — stays in the same old place. The great service of the Zossen tests is in showing beyond the shadow of a doubt that existing speeds can be comfortably doubled without requiring the fulfillment of any impracticable or uncommercial conditions. The sources of previous doubt were threefold. In the first place there was a current opinion that no practicable roadbed could safely stand the speeds of 100 m.p.h. to 125 m.p.h. which were to be at- tempted. Even granting that they could be built, it would be possible only at prohibitive expense. Second, there were many who actually believed that the air resistance at these speeds would be so enormous that even if they could be reached at all, which was dubious, it would be at a cost in power absolutely out of the question in practical railroading. And finally, it was predicted that it would not be practicable to supply energy to the fast-moving car, even if the amount required were within the range of possible usefulness. In other words, very many persons with pretensions of experience in engineering took very little stock in the practicability of any speeds far beyond what their own familiar methods and apparatus could compass.

To each of the questions thus raised the experiments re-

counted in this book have given a definite and satisfactory answer. It proved, as some of those best qualified to judge had suspected, that the most substantial difficulty to be overcome was the instability of the ordinary roadbed, designed in accord- ance with experience at low speeds. In fact, the first series of Zossen tests was cut short by failure of the roadbed at speeds still below 100 m.p.h. But in the later tests here recorded it was shown that without going to unwarrantable expense and without any radical departure, the track and roadbed could be made entirely adequate for the speeds attempted. Grades and curves must, of course, be made relatively easy, the line must be well ballasted and the rails heavy and well laid, but that was all, provided the cars were properly designed. The most important new fact brought to light was the value of intelli- gent truck design and the need of proper balance in the moving parts. Given this, the motion at the highest speeds reached was steady and smooth, without it there was trouble at once. A common sleeper ran at speeds little above 100 m.p.h., with vibration altogether too severe. But balancing, just as in the case of a fast torpedo boat, removed the difficulty in a very .satisfactory njanner. As to the actual power required it proved to be nothing at all forbidding either from the technical or the commercial point of view. This matter is fully taken up in the introduction to the work. As there indicated, the mistaken notions on this point came mainly from reckless extrapolation far beyond the safe range of the older data. And, singularly enough, little weight seems to have been attached to the fact that nearly all the experimental runs with locomotives at high speed had clearly indicated much lower values of the total re- sistance than were customarily taken in the working formulae hitherto used. In this, as in many other things, the Zossen runs here recorded show that high speed is easier than had been supposed.

The questions of power supply were likewise given definite and favorably answers. Given a supj^ly of current at a voltage high enough to keep the total current per contact within reason- able bounds, ample energy could be delivered to the moving car. Even with the three flying contacts made necessary by the polyphase supply, no trouble of any moment was experi- enced. If later it should prove practicable to utilize single- phase current upon the car, the task of power supply would be rendered still easier. In any case, it is not in the least forbid- ding. The engineering difficulties of the task being thus dis- posed of, by no means the least interesting part of the book will be found to be the discussion of the commercial side of the problem. Here it has turned out, as in other similar studies of transportation, that the limit to profitable first cost is the density of traffic. No one would think of building a four-track railroad through a country devoid of large towns and of large cities as termini. Just so, no one would think of building a road for very high speed where the traffic was light. But given a line between large cities with heavy traffic on the express trains and one finds a state of things where high speed will pay. The various projects for a Berlin-Hamburg fast line presented in this volume make it very evident that u paying traffic is in sight there, and there is little reason to doubt that similar lines could be laid out in this country. With this fact once made clear, there is good hope that some fast line will be built ere long. The speeds now in vogue are those adapted better to hastily built roads in a partially developed country than to trunk lines in the heart of a great nation. The Zossen trials have cleared the way for action in a way that is comprehensive and final. From this time forth one cannot pass over high-

April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

577

speed projects as chimerical and impracticable. They must be discussed fairly and upon their merits. A few years of fast automobile work will make a mile a minute seem tame in the eyes of the public, and then the railroads will rise to the oc- casion. Meanwhile the world should be grateful for the ad- mirable pioneering done by the Studiengesellschaft, as recorded in the volume which we are glad to be able to give to the American public. May it soon usher in the new era !

Car Design

The adoption of electric power for rapid transit lines has been followed by a curious interchange in car design between Europe and America during the last four or five years. For a long time the cross-seat center-aisle car was recognized as the standard American steam coach, just as the compartment car was considered the standard of the British steam lines. But on both sides of the water the previous seating arrangement was not found desirable, so that, while the British tube lines have introduced and are operating end entrance cars, the latest American practice is decidedly toward the use of the side door car. The coming adoption of electricity on steam lines for sub- urban service emphasizes the importance of a study of the rela- tive advantages of different arrangements of seats, and for this reason the article by Mr. Fox, on another page, will be of in- terest. In this article the seating arrangements of some twenty- four different types of cars are discussed, and the writer sug- gests as a compromise a multi-side entrance car with seats for eighty passengers and a capacity for loading and carrying away 5760 passengers an hour from a terminal. The number of seats provided in this car is exceeded only by the British Great Eastern and French Quest cars, both of which are impractical under American conditions, and by one of the types on the Liverpool Elevated Railway, which has three doors on each side.

The proposed car is made up by combining a number of fea- tures from other cars, principally from the Illinois Central, Berlin and Liverpool elevated types, and has a great many points to recommend it. At the same time, we believe that for the average conditions of city rapid transit service Mr. Fox lays too much stress on providing a large number of seats. With the growing congestion on surface lines, there is an in- creasing tendency to use the elevated and subway lines for short distance riding, and in this service many passengers would prefer to stand rather than take the trouble to secure a seat if it is much further from the door than the place available for standing. Again, we can foresee serious objections to the multi-side door in any service where it is impossible to carry away from the platform all of the passengers who may wish to travel by that train. This would be particularly true in the case of a transfer station like the island express stations in the New York Subway, where there is a constant stream of pas- sengers across the platform from one train to the other, and where it would be very difficult for an end guard to close simul- taneously a number of side doors unless assisted by a large number of station guards.

Rapid transit service can be roughly divided into four classes, each of which theoretically calls for a different type of car to best fulfil all the requirements. The first division would be that of purely suburban service, where the average haul is from 10 miles to 15 miles, and where there is plenty of time at the terminals to load and unload, but where the intervening stops should be brief. As there is no standing load, the ordinary

steam passenger coach would fill these conditions fairly well if its entrance and exit facilities were better. For such a service the cross-seat center-aisle car with extra large end entrances, or with possibly one side entrance, would seem desirable.

Where the average ride is shorter, and where the passengers travel from a few important stations to and from other minor stations along the route, as in most elevated railway lines, and on some suburban and subway routes, larger entrances are of greater importance and standing room is more neces- sary. For such a service we believe that it is very desirable to provide considerable open space near the entrances, whether the latter are at the ends of the car, as in the New York Sub- way and Chicago^ West Side cars, or if side doors are used, as on the Paris Metropolitan and London Metropolitan District Railway. This space is useful as a reservoir or receiver for the boarding passengers while the doors are being closed and while the passengers are hunting for seats. It will also serve as a reservoir, where those who wish to leave the car at the next station can collect. It might be argued that this space will be blocked by standing passengers, but if this is the case it proves that many would prefer to stand here rather than go further back for a seat, and the remedy is to remove more seats and give a larger standing area.

Still a third class of service is that of a very short haul with only a few stations, like a bridge service, where, of course, the principal desiderata are plenty of standing room and plenty of doors.

The service on a road with a number of transfer stations in- troduces still other considerations, as already described. Here many side doors, while desirable for quick loading and unload- ing, will prove very difficult to close simultaneously against a stream of people, unless many station guards are employed. With tube or subway cars the introduction of side doors may also be prevented by lack of head room.

There is also no doubt that every opening to a car which is used by passengers to board and leave it is a source, if not of accidents, at least of claims, and hence is to be avoided. A multiplication of doors means a multiplication of claims, and while we believe in the use of side doors where their operation can be closely watched and remain under the immediate control of a station or platform guard, yet an effort should be made to limit them, except in possibly the third class of road men- tioned above.

Too much stress should also not be placed upon lengths of station stops for different types of cars in different cities. Figures of this kind are interesting for reference, and some statistics of this kind are presented in this issue. But while these records have considerable value when made with vary- ing types of cars in the same city, the difference in habits and quickness of movement between residents of different cities vitiates any general conclusions on the length of station stops as related to car design, unless the effect of these human quali- ties is given full consideration. There can lie no doubt, how- ever, that the tendency on both sides of the Atlantic is toward the abandonment of the old style platform and the introduction of two or more side doors, usually operated pneumatically from the end of the car. The Boston Elevated was the first in this country to use this type for purely electric rapid transit ser- vice, and the results in that city have proved satisfactory. The subject is one of the keenest present interest, and Mr. Fo.x's discussion in this issue will be followed hy other articles trcal- nig on the same general subject.

578

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

CAR DESIGNS AND CARRYING CAPACITY

BY JOHN P. FOX

The great variety of car designs in Europe suggests, some- times, that we may have carried standardizing too far in this country and failed to evolve types that might carry more, earn and save more than at present. When an American standard car seats forty-four passengers and a European manager can get for the same length of car 168 seats, with standing room easily for 150 more, it certainly sets one to thinking seriously; as again when a single city surface track and terminal can

and foreign practice for the severest city service. The sliding side doors shown are usually operated by guards from the car ends, except with such foreign examples as Berlin, Paris and Liverpool, where passengers operate the doors themselves.

In the endeavor to shorten station stops, a curious inter- change of car designs has taken place between this country and Europe. While the English in their electric trains have aban- doned their many side doors for American end doors, believing the latter to allow shorter stops, the Illinois Central Railroad finds the Manhattan type of car greatly inferior to one with the seats facing each other and side doors to every group of seats. The difficulty with English steam cars for rapid transit is, of

n

FIG. l.-PLAN AND CROSS SECTION OF LONDON METROPOLITAN RAILWAY, SHOWING RUNNING BOARD

only allow about 9150 seats an hour with American cars and methods, and foreign methods can provide for the loading and cairying away of at least 40,000 seated passengers an hour through the same city street. The writer has been making for several years a careful comparative study of American and European car designs for surface, elevated and underground service, and hopes that the results will be of some service. The present article will take up the relative carrying capacity of different types of cars for elevated, underground or sub- urban traffic, where high station platforms are used.

In order to compare European and American rapid transit

course, slowness of loading, because passengers naturally hunt for seats. They are quick enough in unloading, as shown by the rapidity found by an American engineer recently, who timed 500 passengers unloading from a Caledonian train in ten seconds from the time the train stopped. The loading difficulty has been eliminated in the Illinois Central car by the introduction of aisles. This enables passengers to enter by the nearest door and find seats later when the train is in motion. Again, all difficulties from swinging side doors are solved by making them sliding. But the English cars still fur- nish more than twice as many seats as the Illinois Central type

FIG. 2.— GREAT EASTERN RAILWAY, ENGLAND, THIRD-CLASS SUBURBAN CAR, 108 SEATS

practice, a large number of car types have been reduced to the same dimensions, viz. : length over all, 46 ft. 6^ ins. ; width at platform, 8 ft. 7 ins. A reduction of 77 : i has been given to the plans in this paper, so that the scale is i in. equals 6 ft. 5 ins. In order to adapt some foreign cars to these dimensions, radical changes have been necessary, so that the original types may not be recognized at once ; but it will be seen that the re- lations between seats and doors have been preserved. As in Europe the motorman's cab is usually found only at the ends of a train, the accompanying designs are all for a middle car, though many have a cab. In place of European side buffers, blind platforms have been substituted. In addition to types now in use, several new ones are given, and the writer would like to see thoroughly criticised the type given in Figs. 22 to 24, which is an attempt to combine the best features of American

can for city service, and the latter can hardly be operated safely where high station platforms are greatly curved, because of the wide space between the middle of the car and the platform edge. Now curved high platforms, while absent at the Illinois Central stations, are very common at English steam railway stations, and their dangers have been effectively met by the use of running boards filling up all spaces. The Manhattan type of car had no such advantage, until the Metropolitan Railway of London, in its new electric cars, most ingeniously applied the running board idea, as shown in Fig. i. The car posts are carried on an angle fastened to the channel underframe. The car platforms project out still further on brackets, and are con- tinued the whole length of the car by the projecting running board.

For suburban service, where time is not of such vital im-

April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

579

portance as capacity, no cars, of course, can equal the new wide rolling stock of the lines out of London. The Great Eastern Railway has been experimenting with a compound decapod locomotive which can accelerate a loaded eighteen-car train i m.p.h per second. With sixty seats to the 27-ft. cars, one such a train will carry 1080 seated third-class passengers, and, having the ability to attain a speed of 30 m.p.h. in thirty seconds, could probably hold its own against electricity for some time. This is a car with curved sides and swinging doors

rangement is the one illustrated in Fig. 5, only that the greater width of car than that found in l-'aris allows two seats on each side of the aisle instead of one and two. This car is also 75 per cent longer than the Paris single-truck type. The schedule speed in Paris is much slower than in Liverpool, and the interchange of passengers much greater at stations, so that perhaps the wider doors justify the loss of seats. The stops average about thirteen and a half seconds. The reason why this car has so many less seats than tlie Liverpool type —

FIG. 3.-LIVERPOOL OVERHEAD RAILWAY, 72 SEATS

on each side, the latter, of course, operated by the passengers. Fig. 2 shows one of these cars lengthened out to the standard length adopted in this article for purposes of comparison, when it would have io8 seats.

The lack of an aisle in the ordinary English steam cars was overcome in the electric trains of the Liverpool Overhead Rail- way (see Fig. 3). In spite of the small number of single side doors this car could probably handle more passengers than any American type, because of the many seats and their ten- dency to keep people away from the doors. The Liverpool station stops were found by the writer to average fourteen seconds, with a schedule speed of 19 m.p.h. Passengers are well distributed along the line, getting on mostly during the first half of trips and off the second half, the only heavy inter-

though the similar plan of seats would seem to furnish the same — is that the Liverpool doors are very economically placed between passengers' knees, where but little additional room is needed ; while the Paris doors, coming between seat backs, allow no such economy and have nearly twice the aggregate width.

The Manhattan type of car, with its open platforms and sin- gle end doors, has been greatly improved on in the new Metro- politan Elevated cars in Chicago (see Fig. 6) and the steel subway cars in New York. The enclosing of the platforms and the substitution of sliding doors for gates have remedied serious defects. With the Interborough cars the giving over of the whole front of the train to the motorman is in line with the universal European practice. But with very heavy traffic, and especially with many passengers getting both on and off

FIG. l^LIVERPOOL OVERHEAD RAILWAY, 90 SEATS

change of traffic occurring at the Pier Head, the middle station of the line ; but the time lost there is easily made up during the rest of a run. The weight per seat of an empty three-car train is 809 lbs., against 790 lbs. for the New York Elevated local trains, 1251 lbs. for the New York Subway express trains, about 1590 lbs. with the new Boston Elevated cars, and 732 lbs. for the City & South London trains, including locomotive.

In order to get more seats to a car, one Liverpool train, I believe, was built wider at the seat level than at the floor (see Fig. 4), giving three seats on one side of the aisle, with two on the other. This economical way of widening did not, affect any clearances, as other cars already had guard's windows project- ing about 10 ins. beyond the panels, with a width over all of about 10 ft. 2 ins., though only 8 ft. 6 ins. wide at the platform.

The first underground cars in Paris had seats facing each other, as in Liverpool, with narrow side doors, sliding instead of swinging. The doors were later made double, and this ar-

at the same station, as unexpectedly found in llie New York Subway, the Manhattan type seems to have some disadvantages. The first and last cars of a train have only half the entrances of the other cars, and if it should prove necessary in the future to keep passengers always circulating in one direction on plat- forms and in cars — that is. entering a station and all cars at one end and passing out at the other — it would be impractical with the front and rear Manhattan cars, and hindered by the cross seats in the others. Increasing congestion has made American passengers more and more impatient, especially of waiting for persons to get off cars before they get on, and if serious delay- ing conflicts are to be surely avoided perhaps either a regular circulation will have to be provided or else so many doors fur- nished that moving passengers will be widely distributed and tend to get on and off with less friction.

Perhaps this is a good place to introduce the question as to how rapidly passengers will enter a car at the ends. It will be

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

remembered that tlie new steel subway cars in New York have sliding side doors with a 38-in. opening. This, considering the 44-in. inside opening, would seem enough to cause passengers to pass in or out two abreast, and so twice as rapidly as through the single doors of the wooden subway cars. Yet the writer, in timing the passage of people through both kinds of doors, has found the rate of movement only slightly faster through the single doors than through the double doors, even though pas- sengers went two abreast at times through the latter. With doubly wide doors, why should not the rate be much more rapid ? Various explanations have been suggested to answer this ques- tion. One is that the outside opening was not wide enough,

follow the Manhattan type closely, the Metropolitan District Railway has introduced middle doors, 46 ins. wide, in the whole arrangement, doubling the efficiency of the Manhattan plan. All the side doors will be operated by compressed air from the platforms, thus avoiding one of the most serious objections to middle doors, viz., the expense of platform men. As side doors have always been used in Europe, less stress is laid upon the weakening effect on construction from their use than would be the case in this country. As to the safety of operating middle doors from the car ends, the experience of the Boston Elevated Company has been that there is no danger.

The original plans for the car of the Great Northern & City

FIG. 5.— METR01'(_)LITAX RAILWAY, PARIS, 5C SEATS

FIG. C— jMETRuPOLITAN WEST SIDE ELEVATED RAILVv'AY, CHICAGO, 48 SEATS

FIG

-iIETROrt)LITAN DISTRIC'J RAILWAY, LONDON, 4S SEATS

that 48 ins. should have been allowed instead of 38 ins. An- other is that at the adjacent ends of cars people cannot be fed rapidly enough to keep four going in or out at once. Then the passengers wishing to enter line up on each side of the door openings on the station platforms, tending to leave only a nar- row lane for the outgoing crowd, and even if persons enter two abreast they may be obstructed by standing passengers or by those hunting for seats. Again, it has been suggested that if the door opening were plainly divided in the middle by a post, people would not tend to hesitate whether to pass through one or two at a time, any such chance for hesitation being usually ground to cause delay. The practicability of a post with slid- ing or folding doors raises some question, and perhaps it is best not to try to handle people two at a time at the end of a car, but to put in a middle door if construction and head room allow it.

Fig. 7 represents one of the original plans for the Metro- politan District cars, of London, with open platforms and gates. The final plans, as illustrated in the S TREET Railway Journal for March 4. 1905, page 419, provide for enclosed platforms with sliding doors and drop seats for unused openings. While the new electric cars o£ the Metropolitan Railway in London

Railway, London (see Fig. 8), provided for three seats on one side of the aisle, with two on the other, but only two seats on each side were finally adopted. The former arrangement has been followed here to illustrate a large possible seating capacity. Of the folding seats at the middle doors, only the one opposite the open door is counted in the tables. The width of the car requires curved sides. The sliding middle doors are intended for use only at the terminals.

In the Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, 'Liverpool, third-class car (see Fig. 9) we find the general plan of a vestibuled Ameri- can steam car. The actual English cars have some steps at the entrances, which would be omitted, as drawn, with our high sta- tion platforms. The actual cars also have a partition, with a door, in the middle. Being 10 ft. wide over all, three seats are possi- ble on one side of the aisle. The seats are reversible. The vesti- Iniles are closed by doors, not gates, and the doors all swing, and not slide. The windows are unusually large. While this car has wide entrances, it would, of course, be slow to load and unload because of the single center aisle, added to the many seats ; but for a suburban electrified steam line this may not be of much importance.

The cross seat steam railroad type (see Fig. 10) affords a

April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

maximum of comfort in having cross seats facing forward, and with sHding side doors and inside partitions, with or with- out doors, drafts can be reduced to a minimum. If passengers wish to sit facing each other, the seats can easily be turned over, but no one has to ride backward unless he wishes to do so. Of course, no rapidity of circulation is possible in this type of car, especially if there are any standing passengers.

The longitudinal seat car shown in Fig. 11 appears to be an ideal one for the circulation of passengers in one direction

using longitudinal seats the car floor has been dropped down between the wheels to a height of only 19}^ ins. above the track, leaving a head room inside the car of about 6 ft. 6^^ ins. The cars, of course, are all trailers, the physical conditions of the railway being such that locomotives have proved more satis- factory and economical in almost every way than motor cars could be.

The Berlin cars have already been described by the writer and illustrated in the Street Railway Journal for June 4,

FIG. S.-GREAT NORTHERN & CITY RAILWAY, OS TO 73 SEATS

FIG, y.-LANGASHIRE & YORKSHIRE RAILWAY, LIVERPOOL, THIRD-GLASS C.:AR, 72 SKA IS

FIG. 10.— GROSS-SEAT GAR, STEAM RAILROAD TYPE, 5G SEATS

FIG. 11,— LONGITUDIN.'\L SF.AT CAR, 4S SE.\TS

through the car, but as persons would probably only move in single file through the entrances, the large interior space is effective only for standing, and any standing passengers in the aisle would tend to block through circulation. Indeed, the through circulation in one direction, suggested in connection with Fig. 6, would appear to be practical only where all per- sons were seated and the aisles kept free. The longitudinal seat car has its advantages, which are most strikingly illus- trated on the City & South London Railway, where the tube diameters of lo ft. 3 ins. and 10 ft. 6 ins. allow a height from the rail to the top of the car roof of only 8 ft. 41-2 ins. The wheels of the double trucks arc 24 ins. in diameter, and by

1904, Attention can be called again to their generous allow- ance of seat space, as shown in Fig. 12. Every three passen- gers are also separated by a seat arm and post, thus giving many agreeable corners to sit in and to look out from through the large plate-glass windows. The posts used on this car fur- nish a far more desirable and a safer hold than straps. The main body of the car is seiiarated from the outside sliding doors by glazed screens, but there are no platforms. On the end doors are single folding seats, which arc not counted in the tables accompanying this article. Passengers open and shut the doors themselves, but though this undoubtedly tends to cause long stops, averaging twenty-two seconds, an average

582

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

speed of nearly 17 m.p.h. is maintained. As with the City & South London, advantage was taken of the longitudinal seats to make a low and very compact car, which resulted in great economy in building the subway.

The Berlin car would look a little more regular if the doors were moved to the center of each half of the car, as has been done in Fig. 13. This brings the passengers in each quarter of the car at the same average distance from the doors. Screens can then shelter the seats each way. The gain in seats over

should collect at the forward door before stops, and should enter promptly by the rear door only.

The last three cars show the relative seating capacity afforded by three principal methods. Where longitudinal seats require 18 ins. of car length per passenger, reversible cross seats get along with even 15 ins., and seats facing each other with as little as iy/2 ins., though 15 ins. is better, always affording four more seats per car than ordinary cross seats. Where seats face each other, no foot rests are possible, and their general use

FIG. 12.— BERLIN ELEVATED AND UNDERGROUND RAILWAY, 44 SEATS

FIG. 13.— QUARTER DOOR, LONGITUDINAL SEAT CAR, 48 SEATS

FIG. 14.-QUARTER DOOR, REVERSIBLE SEAT CAR, 52 SEATS

FIG. 15.-OUARTER DOOR CAR, CROSS SEATS FACING, 64 SEATS

the original Berlin car, which has forty-four seats, is due to removing the arms and allowing i8 ins. per passenger instead of over 20 ins. One advantage of the end door type is lost here, viz., having the entrances practically within reach of the guard ; but this advantage is less important with the latest slid- ing doors, where a passenger can hardly get caught and hurt, than with the ordinary gates where the platforms frequently get blocked.

If we take the same car and use cross seats, as in Fig. 14, we can secure four more seats than in the car shown in Fig. 13, without really cutting down the facility of loading, for we have the condition of a single narrow aisle which can be entered by four passengers at once. Circulation in one direction could be secured fairly well if the passengers who are leaving the car

might make passengers complain of having to ride backward; l>ut the ease of access to such seats, their compactness and free- dom from turning over recommend their greater use in this country. Fig. 15 shows such a type of car with two side doors and seats for sixty-four passengers.

The latest elevated cars in Boston (Fig. 16) are obviously ideal in some ways for the circulation of passengers. The middle doors, however, have hitherto required platform men to each car at each station to open and close them, at great ex- pense, although on one train they are now being operated most successfully by the guards from the car ends by compressed air, with an automatic starting signal when every door is closed. Allowing about jGjA ins. of seat room per passenger, the Boston cars would seat forty-eight, but the i8-in, space

April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

583

used here for comparative purposes allows only forty-four seats, which is the actual number usually occupied, the cushions being continuous and not divided. The wide aisle allows con- siderable space for 'circulation or standing passengers, but it has the disadvantage of furnishing nothing solid to get hold of or lean against, so that the frequent curves of the Boston subway and streets tend to make passengers stand at the doors, where there are some handles, and so obstruct the openings. The in- troduction of vertical posts along the seats, as in Berlin, would

at the same time, but this is better provided for in Fig. 19. Passengers standing along the platform should keep close to the car and enter by the nearest door and aisle. Passengers would leave by the further aisle, passing out the center door to the further side of the station platform, out of the way of those boarding.

The straight Illinois Central type of car (Fig. 20) has the advantage over this last car of twice as much entrance space per seat, and its spreading out of passengers at so many single

FIG. 16.— LATEST TYPE OF BOSTON ELEVATED CAR, 44 SEATS

l'T(J. 17.— CAR WITH BOSTON ENTRANCES AND ILLINOIS CENTRAL SEATS, 4ti SEATS

FIG. 18.-CAR WITH TWO CENTER ENTRANCES AND ILLINOIS CENTRAL SEATS, 48 SEATS

FIG. 19.— CAR WITH THREE CENTER ENTRANCES AND ILLINOIS CENTRAL SEATS, 48 SEATS

seem to be an advantage and keep the passengers from being thrown over by unexpected curves or stops. The Berlin arms could be omitted to save space. Another possible change would be to arrange the seats as in the Illinois Central cars, facing each other between two side aisles, as in Fig. 17. Here stand- ing passengers have more to take hold of and there is a gain of four seats, or three when the cab is in use. But the distance of tlie middle door from the guard at the end of the car sug- gests another arrangement of doors, as in Fig. 18, where the guard .stands between two wide side doors and can see and regulate things Ijetter than with the end doors alone. The arrows indicate how passengers might enter and leave the car

openings should tend to make them go in and out with less friction and confusion. If the guard stands at the rear of each car, at the side, he can look along the platform more easily than with ordinary types, and has only to look in one direction. Now, the two-aisled car seems all right if nobody has to stand. But the minute that people begin to stand in an aisle its use- fulness obviously begins to diminish. One clear aisle is better than two filled with people. And if only twelve people have to stand in a forty-eight-seat car, might it not be an advantage to throw one aisle into seats, putting the other aisle into the mid- dle of the car?

This has been done in Fig. 21, where the Boston Elevated

584

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

entrances are combined with the vis-a-vis seat, and where sixty seats can be in use at one time. But, for seats facing each other, the IlHnois Central side doors seem better than this com- bination of end and middle doors.

For the severest conditions of American city traffic none of the preceding types of cars seems satisfactory in every way. Many of them are all right with a small number of passengers, or with plenty of time for stops. The capacious Great Eastern type has no aisles, and its swinging side doors, which are simi- lar to those used with the Liverpool cars, might make trouble in this country. The chief difficulty with American cars comes when passengers have to stand, for that is the beginning of the blocking of circidation and friction, which ends in loss of

would be more floor space for entering passengers to fill inside a car before hunting for seats began. So the writer, in looking for an improved plan, abandoned the two aisles for one, as in Fig. 22. This is the first study for a steel type of car. The plan will be criticised at once on the ground that there is too much passing in front of passengers to get anywhere in the car; but, in second thought, it will be seen that there is really no more passing in front of people than in a two-aisled car, and only half as much as in an open car. Passengers anyway would probably tend to sit in the seats away from the doors. To keep those passing by off the feet and knees of those seated, the doorway would furnish one guide, and brackets have been added to the inside seat ends, following an ingenious feature

FIG. 20.— ILLINOIS CENTRAL TYPE, 48 SEATS

time, wages, current, etc., and often causes accidents. The extra expense caused by the overcrowding and consequent de- lay of a single train is surprising. The trouble with providing a maximum amount of standing room and a minimum number of seats is that standing begins too soon and may hinder speed all day long. If passengers in this country would only learn, as they are compelled to in Europe, not to take the first car or train if it is very crowded, it would help things very much. Since his last trip to Europe, the writer has often tried letting a crowded car or train, or two, go by, with quite satisfactory results. But, of course, if people insist on bunch- ing themselves it is of little use to run empty cars. It seems

of the Berlin Elevated cars. The end vestibules are partitioned off from the body of the car, and are solely for employees and apparatus. The motorman would, of course, use the front vestibule of each train, the guard the rear one of each car, operating the side doors, as on the Illinois Central, either me- chanically or by compressed air valves s.t A, B, C or D, calling station names through a partition window through which he "could see when all leaving passengers were out of the car. For the guard to look along the platform without having to open a door or window, four glass bay windows have been provided, after the common English fashion, as found on the Liverpool Overhead Railway. On the partition doors folding

f

FIG. 21.— BOSTON ELEVATED ENTRANCES, BUT WITH CROSS SEATS FACING, 60 SEATS

as though the time had come for more regulation and education in this matter. The persuasion of guards is not enough. Peo- ple would soon learn to allow a little more time for reaching places. But the writer is convinced that th,e easiest and best way in the future to. keep entrances clear is to give passengers more seats out of the way, as has been done on the Liverpool Overhead Railway, only furnishing more entrances, as has been best done in the Illinois Central cars.

To make the Illinois Central car a success it is evidently necessary to keep passengers from hunting for seats before they enter, and to do this effectively one aisle should be kept clear of standing people. With a heavy interchange of traffic at stations it might prove difficult, with only forty-eight seats in a car, to keep passengers from standing in the aisle close to the doors in use, and even if there were no standing passengers those persons hunting for seats might get in the way of those just entering the doors. So a two-aisled plan might not work well for city traffic. Now, if a single aisle is provided in the center of the car, not only is the seating capacity increased 25 per cent, and the aisle more likely to be kept open, but there

seats can be placed, as in Berlin. End doors are furnished at the ends of the cars between heavy vertical angle irons to pre- vent telescoping. Of course, the partitions can have sliding doors, and the cars can be vestibuled if desired; but in Boston passing between cars has been prevented on the new trains in order to reduce accidents. The floor construction of the Illi- nois Central cars has been followed in this case. The door details might follow Boston Elevated practice, with an auto- matic starting signal, not given, of course, till every door is tightly closed.

To facilitate safe moving about the car and encourage pas- sengers to stand ready to get out, vertical posts are provided, not only on the top of each seat back, as in the Swiss Saint Gotth&rd Railway cars and the Paris Metropolitan, but further posts are added at the outer corners of the seats next to the aisles, just inside the brackets. The windows can be lowered from the top, and those in the doors are also movable. The lower line of transoms can be opened inward at the top by passengers, as in the latest English electric cars and German steam cars. The seat ends would be of ornamental pressed

April r, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL,

5S5

steel. The seats themselves would be constructed after the European practice as found on the City & South London Rail- way and London United Tramways, whose seats are better than anything yet in use in this country. The exterior design follows the lines of the Midland Railway cars of England, which seem to meet the conditions in an attractive manner.

If it should seem desirable to have a circulation of passen- gers in one direction through the car, they might pass forward in the car just before reaching a station, and then out through the four leading doors, all entering being by the four rear doors. As side door cars are not too cold on the lake front of Chicago,

The carrying capacity of Fig. 24 may be illustrated by vvliat it might do at the Brooklyn Bridge. The bridge trains are obliged to carry in a single rush hour as many as 35,000 passen- gers. But if the terminals were fully utilized it appears that the capacity of the railway tracks could be not less than 41,600 seats an hour, if elevated cars of the new type were used, run- ning with the present headway, or 50,000 seats an hour if spe- cial bridge cars were used, the trains loading or unloading from one side only in ten or twelve seconds. It should be noted that cars with side doors between seats facing each other are the only cars that can be loaded and unloaded simultaneously

€6 AVMrs

i.O«mi ovKR Burrass

WlinU OVER tAJICLS HElfiHT - AAH, TO ROOF Vljim OF DOOBA — OPCM HtlCTTOF DOORS ■WIDTH or AlSLt BETWEEN POSTS

itfW ^sfibttles are used o-niy by trtoicrrnun ^asr^

Si^t dnors are o/xrafdd ^ ffuara bv comrTiprcsse<f atrfivm nar yzs - - rihule o^eac/i car by means of va^tns on partition >^l> ar 'A,B.C.t>

Vfifh aufzimsfic slectrtc tfartthj Sjfinaf, fra/ri 4oes not move t/// £¥i:ry Qpor/s tighf/^ c/oi^.

FIG. 22.— PROPOSED CAR WITH EIGHT SIDE D( loRS AND CENTER AISLE, 66 SEATS

they ought to be satisfactory for subway, or even elevated ser- vice, especially if the elevated platforms are covered and en- closed, as in Paris, or better, as in Berlin, where inexpensive steel roofs span both tracks and platforms above and glass- lighted side walls are used.

While this new car has 50 per cent more seats than that shown in Fig. 16, it is possible to gain still more seating ca- pacity by widening the upper part of the car, as in Liverpool. This would provide sixteen extra seats, the car floor being the same. Fig. 23 shows the changes, the seat arms, some posts and the bay windows being omitted. As the curved sides would not be as satisfactory as straight, the construction may finally be changed to that of the London Metropolitan cars, as shown in Fig. 24, where the transoms and better appearance of Fig. 22 have been restored. The straight vertical posts would be car- ried on an angle fastened to the steel underframe, with a clear- ance above the platform sufficient to allow for the breaking of a spring. The increased height of the car floor, as now often found in this country and in Europe, would be compensated for by the absence of any gap between platform and car in inost cases.

by means of two station platforms without taking more time than loading or unloading separately.

The large seating capacity of the modified Illinois Central car, shown in Fig. 24, makes it look very inviting for suburban steam or electric service. A 60-ft. body would allow 120 seats against the ordinary eighty. With a vestibuled train one guard might operate the side doors of two cars. The end partitions could have sliding doors, and the vestibules have trap doors, steps and swinging outside doors, which could be brought into use at stations where high platforms were undesirable. Pas- sengers might use the car steps at way stations and have the side doors opened only at terminals. The introduction of a third person on one seat might be objected to, but a passenger would probably prefer to sit there to standing, and we never think of really objecting to sitting between passengers on an open car, though longitudinal seats are growing in disfavor. But would people consent to ride backward, as they do on the Illinois Central? It is argued that vis-a-vis seats have been practically abandoned on street cars in this country, in spite of their economy of space and that the bulkhead seat of open cars is alwavs the last to be filled. Rut it nmst be remeniberc l

586

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

ber of both is not desired, it may be best for suburban service to continue the present steam car type, with the addition, for electric service, of wide vestibuled platforms, as on interurban cars.

As an example of the most capacious type of car in Europe, though obviously impractical for American rapid transit pur- poses, a design is added in Fig. 25, following the lines of the latest double-deck steam cars of the Quest Railway of France, which affords 168 seats for the standard length of 46 ft. 6 ins. Double-deck steam cars have been used for many years on the lines out of Paris, as well as in Denmark and Egypt. The up- per deck of this car is wholly enclosed, and is reached by open stairs going up from each side at the ends. Though the wheels are 39^^ ins. in diameter, the height of the French car from rail to roof is only 14 ft. 6 ins., the French preferring to have

FIG. 23.^PKUPOSED CAR WITH EIGHT SIDE DOORS AND CEN'J ER AISLE, 82 SEATS

that vis-a-vis seats have not always been well designed, espe- cially as regards the backs ; that they are still in use on many elevated cars and all Pullman sleeping cars, and that they are universal and very popular on all European railroad cars, which are often more comfortable as regards seating than our parlor cars.' The writer believes that if European seat construction were followed, both in cushions and backs, passengers would learn to forget their previous habits. Still, if suburban cars are never by any possibility to use a subway or elevated sys- tem, if the terminal stop for either loading or unloading will never be less than a minute, and if greater economy in the number of cars and men or larger capacity for the same num-

seats enough even if cramped vertically, while the Americans are crowded horizontally. On the Quest Railway on Sundays sometimes 1500 people ride on one train of double-deck cars. Passengers climb stairs at the rate of about one in two seconds.

The best test of the carrying capacity of a car seems to be the number of passengers it can handle at a terminal, and in the accompanying tables all the foregoing types of cars have been classified in this way. With a given number of persons to be loaded or unloaded at stations it is obvious that the length of stops will depend on the number of car entrances. If the head- way is two minutes or more and the length of stops not very important, as on long or fast runs, of course the entrances can

Elevated. Subway. OR Suburban Car

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FIG. 24.-PROFOSED CAR SIMILAR TO THAT SHOWN IN FIG. 23, BUT WITH STRAIGHT SIDES

April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

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STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

be few in number and subordinated to other features. In classifying the different types a rate of loading or unloading has been assumed of one passenger per second through each single opening, and two per second for each double opening, except where the latter occurs at the car ends, where ap- parently, as already discussed, all openings as at present con- structed can only be counted as single. It may be questioned whether double openings elsewhere should be counted as such, but the writer has found persons passing through the Boston Elevated middle doors at the rate of twenty in thirteen seconds, forty-four in twenty-eight seconds, etc., and so will assume for the present the rate of two persons a second. For single car doors the writer has records of each passenger, taking 1.38 seconds in Boston and i.io seconds in the New York Subway, and hopes that one second will be accepted as a satisfactory

seats as customary to-day for the same total operating ex- penses, it seems well to consider whether the time has not come for the adoption of the steam road practice of always furnish- ing more seats than there are passengers, and so attracting all possible business. There is nothing that has hurt electric rail- way traffic so much in our cities ^s overcrowding. Evening traffic is especially sensitive; ladies in evening dress do not like to be roughly handled, and one disagreeable experience may keep them off the cars at night for some time. While the limit of a rapid transit line and terminal with eight-car trains is about 50,000 seats an hour, the limit of a city street and ter- minal is about 40,000 seats an hour in one direction, as will be shown in a later article.

To return to the matter of car comparisons, in the accom- panying tables a terminal is assumed at which cars load through

Plan of Upper Deck

Plan of Lower Deck FIG. 25.— OUEST RAILWAY, PARIS, DOUBLE-DECK STEAM CAR,

SEATS

ideal rate. The number of passengers allowed to a car is the number of seated passengers only, a limit which will doubtless be criticised. But if a standing load is to be figured on it seems impossible to assume any satisfactory uniform rate of loading, because the obstruction to movement caused by standing pas- sengers would probably vary the loading rate differently for each type of car, depending on width of openings, handles, posts, direction of aisles, etc., the effect of which could only be told by actual experiment with all the types under the same conditions. Suppose it were necessary to carry away 46,080 passengers an hour from a terminal. The type of car in Fig. 24 could do' it and give every passenger a seat with eight-car trains, whereas it seems doubtful if the types with few seats and large standing room could in any way handle so many peo- ple, no matter how closely packed, because the entrances would be too few to get them on in time, besides which the early be- ginning of standing would soon reduce the rapidity of loading and finally stop it altogether before all the people were on.

In regard to the matter of standing, the writer has been studying its aspects for several years, both in this country and Europe, discussing it with some of the best experts on both continents, and feels now, as do so many practical men in this country, that it has been greatly overdone, and has been the cause of much loss of business, higher operating expenses and serious accidents. Now that it appears possible in the future, even with the worst congestion, to furnish in some cities all day long, and even at the rush hours, at least twice as many

all doors on one side only, and are operated with a block-signal system, which causes a train to take twenty seconds to run from the home signal to a full stop at the station, and another twenty seconds from the time of leaving the station till the home signal is clear for the next train to run in. Only, instead of trains, the capacity of cars run singly is taken to make the figures smaller. The first column in Table I. shows the maxi- mum number of passengers that can be carried away from the terminal by stopping each car just long enough to fill the seats. In this case a slow loading car is at a disadvantage, unless it has a great many seats. The second column assumes a two- minute headway, which allows time enough for the slowest type to fill its seats, so that the cars come out grouped in order according to their seating capacity. The third column assumes a minute headway, and here again the number of entrances, combined with the largest number of seats, show their im- portance. In practice, the Quest Railway and Great Eastern cars would not load so many people as given in the table if passengers hunted for seats, but the figures for unloading would, of course, be as shown. The capacity of a number of the types with cross seats could obviously be increased by using a widened construction like that in Fig. 24.

Through limited service has been instituted between Colum- bus and Dayton over the Appleyard lines. The running time is three hours, about one hour faster than the local schedule.

April i, 1905.]

STATION STOPS IN RAPID TRANSIT SERVICE

The Street Railway Journal has been interested for some time in some of the question raised in the article on "Car De- sign and Carrying Capacity," printed elsewhere in this issue, but especially in the effect of car design on station stops, a mat- ter which has received less attention in the past than accelera- tion, speed and braking. While these last are most important factors in rapid transit, station stops must be short if they are frequent and if a high schedule speed is needed. According to L. B. Stilkvell, in an address on the New York Subway on Feb. 8 at the annual dinner of the American Institute of Elec- trical Engineers, the factor of time lost at stations presents the most serious obstacle to the satisfactory solution of rapid transit problems. An interesting contribution to the subject has been furnished to the Street Railway Journal by James R. Chapman, general manager of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London. He states that practically all the suburban business of the steam railways entering London is handled in side door cars, and similar equipment is being added every year. The cars used on the London electric tube lines, however, are of the American type with end doors. The diameter of the tubes being 11 ft. 6 ins., the floor of the car cannot be raised high enough to permit of a side door. Hence the advantages and disadvantages of both types of cars for handling short riders can easily be studied in London.

The side door car has the following advantages :

Greatest possible seating capacity per lineal foot of train.

Rapid loading and unloading of passengers at terminals.

Minimum number of trainmen.

Its disadvantages are as follows:

Time lost at intermediate stations.

Difficulty in properly lighting, warming and ventilating.

Danger to passengers from evilly-disposed persons.

Risk of passengers falling out of car in motion.

Impossibility of collecting fares between stations.

Non-resistance to telescoping due to inherently weak con- struction above floor line.

In regard to time lost at stations, an excellent illustration is between Notting Hill Gate and the Bank. The Central London Railway, a tube line, has a station on one side of the street at the former point, and the Metropolitan Railway has its station on the opposite side of the street. The tube Hne has ten sta- tions in 4.7 miles, and its stops average eighteen seconds per station with end door cars. The Metropolitan Railway, for the same number of stops, averages thirty-seven seconds per sta- tion with side door cars. The figures given represent the mean of many observations during the busy hours. The character of traffic is the same, both lines receiving more passengers than they discharge for the first five stations, and discharging more than they receive for the remainder.

On the other hand, the side door train of nine short cars has but two trainmen, while the end door train has a man between each pair of cars, or six men for seven cars. The side door train- men have plenty of work shutting doors at every station. In this duty they are assisted by one or more station porters. It is not unusual for a train to start with fully one-half of the doors open, and these are caught and slammed as it moves off, the operation being rather trying to the nerves of the passen- gers. Rapid acceleration is not possible under such conditions.

From an American standpoint, the chief objection to side door cars arises from the methods which have to be adopted to collect fares. Many of the suburban express trains make fine runs at the rate of 45 m.p.h. to 50 m.p.h. into London, but wait from two to four minutes at some station, a mile or more from the terminus, while a gang of ticket collectors open the side doors and take up tickets. It is not unusual to see a train with 600 passengers held an extra minute while a few pennies are collected from a passenger who has lost his ticket. A receipt

589

is given for the amount collected, and 599 passengers lose a minute and get no receipt.

On other lines the train is brought directly into the terminus and passengers are passed through a gate. Each one is ex- pected to say "season," or give the gateman a piece of colored cardboard. The pressure from behind is severe, the gateman does a two-handed business and takes anything that is given to him. The whole system is very crude and wide open to fraud. If a fraud is discovered, however, an English magistrate has to be reckoned with, and the fine is heavy ; while in America the police magistrate would probably discharge the offender and assess the costs against the company for not having a better system.

While Mr. Chapman's company, in building the new Metro- politan District Railway cars, has abandoned the swinging door compartment type for a sliding end and middle door type along Boston Elevated lines, the Illinois Central Company has been developing its side door steam car and obtaining remarkable results with its use. This type of car was so fully described and illustrated in the Street Railway Journal for April 30, 1904, page 661, and July 4, 1903, page 21, that it seems hardly necessary to repeat more than to say that, with a length over all of 72 ft., there are 100 cross seats, facing each other, with twelve sliding doors on each side of the car opposite each sec- tion of eight seats, the seats being arranged down the middle of the car, with an aisle on each side. The side doors are oper- ated from the ends of the car, and can be all opened or closed at once, or locked or unlocked, the general practice being at way stations to merely unlock all doors and allow passengers to open such as they wish to use, all being then closed by the guard. In regard to the length of stops, the originator of the car, A. W. Sullivan, states that no formal test has been made to determine how rapidly the cars might be worked, the results in ordinary service being so remarkably good that no special test has been deemed necessary. As an illustration, he gives a statement of the time required for station stops on a run re- cently made, leaving Randolph Street at 4:35 p. m., with a heavy load of passengers, the time being taken with a stop watch and the test made without the knowledge of the train- men, who on this trip were performing their duties in the usual manner :

Stations. Time consumed

in stops.

Sixteenth Street 7 seconds.

Twenty-Second Street 5 "

Twenty-Sixth Street 6 "

Thirty-First Street 8 "

Thirty-Sixth Street 12 "

Thirty-Ninth Street 7

Forty-Third Street g "

Forty-Seventh Street 12 "

Fiftieth Street g "

Fifty-Third Street 10 "

Fifty-Seventh Street 6 "

Sixtieth Street 5 "

Sixty-Third Street 3 "

The average time of the thirteen stops was 7.61 seconds. Considering that the passengers on this train were largely ladies returning from their day's shopping and that their move- ments were made with much deliberation, the time required to make the stops, to open the side doors of the cars, let out and admit passengers, close the doors and lock them, is quite re- markable. There was in this case no opportunity for the train- men to cut short their work by giving the signal before all the passengers were on or off, as all the doors were on an electric circuit, and the only manner in which the signal can be given to the engineer to start the train is by actually closing the doors. So the operations were conducted under conditions that admit of no possible chance for casualties by persons attempt- ing to get on or off trains while in motion.

In regard to the heating of the Illinois Central type of car,

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[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

some doubt having been expressed as to the possibility of keep- ing a side door car warm in American winter weather, it is in- teresting to know that the Illinois Central Company has found its new type easier to heat than its other cars, the exhaust steam from the air pump on the locomotive being all that is required. The explanation given for this ease in heating is that the heat- ing coils under the seats are so exposed as to allow the favor- able circulation of air about them, so necessary for efficient heating. Cold air entering a side door, passing along the floor as it does, quickly meets obstructions, loses its velocity, and is soon heated in contact with the steam pipes under the seats, the car design allow- ing a large amount of radiating surface. With an end door car, cold air finds a long aisle to sweep down, and the heating surfaces seem less easily reached, though, of course, end doors are more sheltered than side doors. When all the side doors of a train are opened, more cold air can enter than by two end doors ; but in practice on the Illinois Central, only a few doors are opened at each sta- tion, except at the terminals.

The Boston Elevated Company has been oper- ating for some time two types of cars as illus- trated in the accompanying diagrams, the older cars having open platforms, end doors, swing- ing gates, with middle side doors opened by platform men, all day long on the first car of each train, and on all cars at terminals and during the rush hours. The newer cars have no platforms, but sliding end and side doors, operated by compressed air from the car ends by the guards, as illustrated in the Street Railway Journal for Aug. 6, 1904, page 202. One of the new trains has had its middle doors equipped with pneu- matic operating apparatus, and also an electric signal, by

which a starting bell is rung in the motorman's cab the instant every door is safely closed. A test was made on Jan. 19 to de- termine how quickly this last new train could handle passen- gers compared with an old train. The old train followed the new over the same routes, covering the entire system. The old train had the end gates of all cars and the side door of the for- ward car opened at all stations all day. In addition to this, during the rush hours all the doors in the old train were opened at all stations except on Atlantic Avenue and Northampton

48 PASSENGERS SEATED.

PLAN OF NEW CAR

ALL DOORS PNEUMATICALLY OPERATED AND EQUIPPED WITH ELECTRIC STARTING SIGNALS

■St Rv..)oiini

|<-31-

43 PASSENGERS SEATED.

PLAN OF OLD CAR

DOORS AND GATES MANUALLY OPERATED.

Strsti Rv.Jn

PLANS OF OLD AND NEW BOSTON ELEVATED CARS

Street, northbound, and Thompson Square and City Square, southbound. The new train had all doors opened at all stations all day, the doors being operated by pneumatic means. At the terminals all doors and gates of all trains were opened at all times of the day, except the forward and rear end doors of the trains, which are never opened. The number of passengers getting on and of¥ at each station were counted and the length

TABLE I.-SHOWING STOPS AT ALL INTERMEDIATE STATIONS ON BOSTON ELEVATED

Stations.	Schedule Station Stops in Seconds Average.	Old Train.	New Train.
Station Stops Secs.	Passengers On and Off.	Station Stops Secs.	Passengers On and Off.	Per Cent Passengers Per Sec. Old Train= 100.
Total.	Average .	Total.	Average.	Per Sec.	Total.	Average.	Total.	Average.	Per Sec.
Thompson Square	13.0	208	13	0	158	9	9	0	76	208	13	0	213	13.	3	1.02	134
City Square	15.5	255	15	9	275	17	2	1	08	232	14	5	263	16.	4	1.13	105
North Station	24.5	283	25	9	360	32	7	1	26	194	17	9	376	34.	2	1.91	151
Haymarket Square	17.	208	19	1	296	26	9	1	41	175	16	0	285	25	9	1.62	115
Adams Square	16.	96	19	2	163	32	6	1	70	87	17	4	166	33.	2	1.91	112
Scollay Square	26.5	377	34	3	992	90	1	2	62 '	320	29	0	1,020	92.	9	3.20	122
Park Street	30.	366	33	3	972	88	3	2	65	314	28	5	875	79.		2.78	105
Boylston Street	20.5	298	27	1	705	64	0	2	36	245	22	5	682	61.	9	2.75	116
Pleasant Street	17.	216	19	7	324	29	4	1	49	164	14	9	288	26.	2	1.76	118
Dover Street	17.	140	23	3	297	49	5	2	12	I 107	17	8	283	47.	2	2.63	124
Northampton Street	18.	134	22	3	187	31	2	1	40	112	18	7	186	31.	0	1.66	119
Battery Street	18.	82	16	4	68	13	6	0	83	68	13	6	76	15.	2	1.10	133
State Street	13.	85	17	0	80	16	0	0	94	64	12	8	66	13.	2	1.03	no
Rowes Wharf	19.	66	13	2	73	14	6	1	11	55	11	0	63	12	6	1.14	103
South Station	23.	99	19	8	139	27	8	1	40	100	20	0	209	41.	8	2.09	149
Beach Street	14.5	57	11	4	38	7	6	0	67	58	11	6	43	8.	6	0.74	110
TOTALS Averages	18.9	2,970	21	2	5,127			i	73	2,503	17	9	5,094		2.04	" 118

TABLE XL— SHOWING ESTIMATED STOPS AT TERMINAL STATIONS

Terminal Station.	Old Train.	New Train.
Seconds Stop.	Total Passengers.	Passengers Per Second.	Seconds Stop.	Total Passengers.	Passengers Per Second.
Total.	Average .	Total.	Average.
Sullivan Square . AVERAGES Per Cent. Passengers Per Sec. Old Train=100	374 180	47 60	1,893 1,002	5.06 5.56 5.31 100	326 160	41 53	1,751 917	5.38 5.72 5.55 105

April i, 1905.]

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591

of stops was taken, so that the number of passengers handled per second was found. Six runs were made, covering both slack and rush hours, with an old three-car train and a new three-car train. Five corresponding runs were made with a four-car train of each type. The accompanying tables give the principal results secured as an average of both the three and four-car trains.

As all trains are held at the terminals for the proper time to start, the figures given for terminal stops are the estimated, not the actual, times taken. For the same reason also they are not of so much importance as the intermediate station records. It will be seen that in these stops the new train beat the old in

TABLE III.-SHOWING SLACK AND RUSH-HOUR STOPS

All Si.MiiiNs Exckpi Terminals.	Old Thain.	New Train.
Slack Hours.	Rush Hours.	Slack Hours.	Rush Hours.
Average Passengers per Second. Percentages	1.25 100	2.49 100	1.54 123	2.65 107

passengers per second by from 5 per cent to 51 per cent, the average being 18 per cent. It will also be seen that at ScoUay Square, which has the heaviest traffic of all the way stations, the new train showed an average of 3.2 passengers on and off per second with 1020 passengers, as against the old train record of 2.62 with 992 passengers. This is due, of course, to the opening of the middle door by compressed air at all times, to the use of an automatic signal, and to the freer end entrances with sliding doors instead of gates.

The question will be asked whether it has proved safe to operate middle doors from the ends of cars by pneumatic means, and the experience with the Boston Elevated train allows an emphatic affirmative answer. The new Boston doors have proved remarkably safe, due mostly, perhaps, to the pneumatic striker on the edge of the door, which can only press lightly against the smooth door jamb, and cannot hold anyone's cloth- ing or hand.

The conditions in the New York Subway differ from those on most other rapid transit lines, because four tracks are used, and to gain time passengers frequently transfer from local to express trains, and vice versa, at the island platforms. For this reason the number of passengers entering and leaving each train is much larger than if each passenger used one train only. .\ fair average of the length of station stops on the subway is given in the accompanying table:

TABLE IV.— AVERAGE LENGTH IN SECONDS OF STATION STOPS ON NEW YORK SUBWAY

Rush hours

Type of train Slack hours Important stations

Subway express five-car train 30 ....

Subway express eight-car train 35 SO-70

Subway local 12-15 25-30

In the average one-minute stop for the express trains at im- portant stations during rush hours, about twenty seconds are taken by passengers leaving the train, about thirty seconds by passengers boarding the train, and about ten seconds in getting started. These figures are unofficial, but are the average of a number of observations, the length of time varying with the number of passengers getting on and off the train. The aver- age length of station stops on the New York elevated lines is about the same as that on the sulnvav local trains.

*^ —

President A. G. Wheeler, of the Illinois Tunnel Company, estimates that the company will carry 3,000,000 tons of dirt during the remainder of the present year. The charge for hauling is 623/ cents per cubic yard.. By the use of the tunnels the foundations for the new buildings to be constructed for the Northern Trust Company and for Marshall Field & Company are being put in without disturbing the present tenants of the properties.

MURNAU-OBER-AMMERGAU SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAY

Murnau is a station on the Partenkirchen branch of the Bavarian State Railways, one of the several small lines that run from Munich into the picturesque mountainous country on the border of Tyrol, known as the Bavarian Highlands. Ober- Ammergau is right in the heart of these mountains, and has

MILL RACE CROSSING THE RIVER AMMER BELOW INTAKE, BY MEANS OF STEEL AQUEDUCT

become famous owing to its association with the decennial passion play that takes its name. The new railway will now be able to develop the already considerable traffic between the mountains and Munich, of regular tourists, holiday makers, peasants, hunters, etc., as well as a good business in farm

VIEW NEAR RAILWAY STATION, SHOWING ORDINARY TYPE OF SUSPENSION

])roduce. The rolling stock, as will afterward be shown, has been built specially to meet these requirements.

The line, which is 23 km long (about 14 miles), is operated on the Siemens-Schuckert single-phase current traction system. The power is derived from the River Ammer, a stream which rises in the Ober-Ammergau Mountains, and running through

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the Ammerthal discharges into the Ammersee. The hne start- ing from Murnau more or less follows the coach road running west and skirting the Staffelsee, thence through Kohlgrub, it joins the Ammerthal and turns south, passing Saulgrub, Wur- mesau and Unter-Ammergau to Ober-Ammergau. The power

INTAKE OF THE MILL RACE

station is situated about 8 km from Ober-Ammergau (i. e., the line is fed at a point one-third its length from one end). One of the views shows the dam and intake at the commencement of the mill race. The latter crosses the stream some distance below the intake by means of a steel aqueduct, and a con- siderable head is available. The power station is provided with two turbines, each of which is direct coupled through a flexible coupling to two generators arranged in tandem on the same shaft. The generators nearest the turbines are single-phase machines, and the others generate three-phase current, which is used for lighting some of the neighboring vil- lages. The single-phase current is generated at 5000 volts and at a frequency of 16% cycles per second, and is fed direct into the line at this pressure, the return being to earth. The total drop in volts when two trains are at the end of the line furthest from the power station is only 6 per cent.

The overhead wire is mostly single, but there are some experimental lengths of catenary sus- pension, comprising one steel catenary and two copper wires. The second illustration shows a station with ordinary single suspension and one of the poles provided with horn type lightning- arresters, which carry out their functions very well. The district is subjected to extremes of weather, the violent thunder storms of the sum- mer giving place to heavy snow storms and in- tense cold in the winter, when the temperature falls as low as — 30 degs. C. Hence, the over- head line has had to be very carefully and strongly erected. It was at first found that the snow tended to short-circuit the lightning arresters, while the lubricants of the motors and car axles often froze, but these troubles have been successfully overcome.

The cars are'of the corridor type. The trailers are ordinary four-wheel coaches for third-class only, and are attached to the motor coaches as required. The latter are mounted on three

axles and are divided into four sections, namely, second-class, third-class, post and luggage, and driver's compartments. Their net weight fully equipped is 26 tons. They are well lighted by means of batteries under the car bodies and electrically heated by radiators in the secondary circuit. The brakes are worked by compressed air provided by axle-driven compressors.

The collecting apparatus comprises two bows mounted on the top of each car on frames which are insulated from the roof. The bows are held up by springs and are pulled into position by an air cylinder which is fed from the brake reservoir and controlled by the driver. The high-tension current is taken past a horn lightning arrester through a choking coil and fuse on the roof, and passes thence to an automatic circuit breaker (see diagram) under the car body. This switch is mechanically closed by the first operation of the controller CB, which is provided with two electromagnetic trip devices ; one of these is in series with the primary of the trans- former Tp, and operates as a maximum cut- out; the other trip device is controlled by a local battery and switch in the driver's cab, and enables the driver to open the main high-tension switch. Each motor is provided with one transformer, which is suspended ' under the car body, enclosed in an oil tank, which is ribbed outside. The secondary coil of the transformer Ts is connected at various points to the controller CB, which is pro- vided with a magnetic blow-out M, and is taken thence to the reversing switches RR and the motors Mi and M2, the main current passing through an ammeter shunt to which are connected two ammeters Am. The reversing switches have, as will be seen, three positions. The two extreme positions are for backward and forward running, respectively, while the

VIEW OF POWER STATION, SHOWING GENERATORS AND SWITCHBOARD

center position is for taking the cars into the car shed, where a special low-tension overhead trolley line is provided. For this purpose, when the cars arrive at this point the switches Szv are closed and the low-tension trolleys LT are put into operation. The transformer reduces from 5000 volts to 260 volts, and the barrel controller switches this voltage step by step on to the motors.

Aprii, I, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAf,

593

ARRANGEMENT OF WIRING CIRCUITS ON CARS FOR THE M U RN AU-( )BER-AMMERGAU SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAY

Each car is provided with two 80-hp motors, which are geared to the two end axles of the coach through single reduc- tion gears with a ratio of i to 5.2, the running wheels having a diameter of 800 mm (^lyz ins.). These motors enable the car to maintain a normal full speed of 40 km per hour when run- ning either by itself or with a trailer. The two motors are always in parallel; they are of the lo-pole single-phase com- mutator type, and are built to a design which includes special windings for reducing the sparking. It is claimed that this arrangement has been so successful that the sparking at the commutator is practically nil over a very wide range of speed. This type of motor can also be arranged for running with con- tinuous current if necessary. The cars have been tested on the

steepest grade (i in 25), and they started with a gross load of 50 tons without any trouble whatever.

The complete electrical equipment for this railway, which was opened for regular service early this year, was designed and supplied by the Siemens-Schuckert Company. It is re- ported that this company is also completing for the Swedish State Railways a single-phase locomotive which is capable of working with 20,000 volts taken direct from the trolley wire. They are also at work in conjunction with the Allgemeine Elektricitiits Gesellschaft on the Hamburg-Altona single-phase line. It is interesting to learn that single-phase railway motors of the type above described are being made by Siemens Bros. & Company, Ltd., at their Stafford Works, England.

MOTOR CAR AND TRAILERS STOPPING AT A STATION

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STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

WELDED VS. FISHED AND BONDED RAIL-JOINTS

BY WILLIAM H. COLE

The use of thermit in the welding of rail ends, especially in street railways, has become so well known within the past six months that the management of nearly all the systems in opera- tion in the United States know more or less what it is and its advantages. It is'obvious that if it is possible to join the rail ends permanently together so that they become continuous, and the joint has been practically eliminated, and permanently so, one of the worst, most expensive and annoying troubles incident to track construction and its maintenance has been overcome.

There can be no doubt that this can be done when thermit has been applied in rail-welding. The rail ends are melted to- gether at their ends and become one solid mass, and the joint no longer exists. It has also been demonstrated in making this weld that the quality of the steel in the rail has not been changed and that no decarbonization takes place. Repeated tests show that the tread of the rail retains its hardness, and at same time the joint may be handled and used just the same as any other part of the rail. The conductivity of the joint is above that of an equal section of the rail away from the joint, and remains so up to the end of the life of the rail.

The simplicity of the application of the system, its flexibility and the fact that it may be economically applied to the welding of worn joints without interruption of traffic, are facts that ap- peal strongly to the track engineer, but its superiority in an- other direction, and the enormous economy worked out during the life of the rail, does not seem to have been so fully gone into in the United States by street railway engineers as in Europe and Great Britain. There are many cities in Great Britain and Europe that set aside as high as $2,500 per mile per annum for upkeep of rail-joints, bonds and track.

The following is an estimate made to show the actual econ- omy in welding the rail ends with the Goldschmidt thermit sys- tem, as compared with the same line joined with fish-plates and bonded with a 000 copper bond around the same. A case has been taken where a 7-in. steel rail weighing 70 lbs. to the yard was laid on creosoted ties, 2-ft. centers, paved with the usual granite blocks. An average was taken of 500 amps, for twelve hours per day at 500 volts, current delivered at 2 cents

per kw-hour:

Cost of fish-plating and bonding i mile of double track. . $2,816 Depreciation of joints (life ten years, of rails) at 20 per

cent per annum 1,408

Testing for bad bonds 1,260

Paving, repaving, excavation, etc 2,110

Repairs of rail-joints, tightening up bolts, paving excava- tion and repaving 2,310

$9,904

Credit for old copper 294

Cost of one mile of double track to the extent of its life, including upkeep* $9,610

Cost of I mile of double track with joints thermit welded

at, say, $4.00 per joint $2,816

Losses by breakage of rails, caused by contraction at per cent per annum (the life of the rail when welded by thermit being estimated at twenty-five years) 353

Total cost of line and upkeep for life of rail (twenty-five

years) $3,169

The comparative cost of ten years' life of thermit welded joints and of fished and bonded joints would then be as follows :

Fished and bonded joints $9,610

Thermit welded joints for ten years 1.243

Difference in favor of thermit welded joints for i mile of double track, 70-lb. rail $8,367

This gives at the end of the life of the rail, when fished and

* See article in Street Railway Journal, Sept. 3, 1904, entitled "Rails and Joints."

bonded, a difference of $io.8i per joint, which is more than double the price of making a thermit joint for such a rail.

Again, take the same rail and calculate the loss per mile of double track where joints are fished and bonded with a coo B. & S. copper bond, and include the loss of life of rail by de- preciation of joint, caused by imperfect joining and bonding. The loss of current on account of difference in resistance be- tween bond and rest of line, leaving out considerations of in- terest, etc., and the fact that the bonds are continually depre-

ciating, would be as follows :

Loss on rails, per annum $683.00

Loss on bad bonds and renewals, per annum 448.60

Loss on current to overcome difTerence of resistance of

bonds and resistance of rail if thermit welded 181.77

Per annum $i;3i3-37

Cost of upkeep of thermit welded joints per annum.... 124.30

Difference per aniuim in favor of thermit welds, or the respectable sum of $1.69 per annum per joint $1,189.07

The above calculations have been made without regard to the wear and tear of rolling stock, pounding over worn joints, and to say nothing about the increased comfort of the patrons of a line where the joints have been welded.

The calculations as to loss of current are based upon the fol- lowing; 000 B. & S., 36 ins. average length, 500 amps, for twelve hours per day ; resistance of bonds, 0.0083 ohms per mile more than if the rails were continuous ; 70-lb. steel rail ; cost of current, 2 cents per kw-hour. This runs into the respectable sum of $181.77 per annum, and is based upon the assumption that the tracks and lines were regularly cross-bonded and the bonds were kept up to their best condition all of the time. As a matter of fact, 15 per cent or 20 per cent can be safely added to this amount on account of the bonds after a period of a few months. If even 10 per cent is added, it brings the amount up to the large sum of $199.94 as a dead loss per annum for each mile of double track.

There is another phase that must not be lost sight of that is bound to be given some prominence in the near future, and that is earth returns of current and its damaging efTect by elec- trolysis to adjacent pipes. The writer has often seen a drop in voltage on lines of 150 volts, and a good part of this is due to defective bonding. The current must return in some way, and it is natural to suppose that water, gas and other metallic pipes assist materially in return the current. The authorities are bound to take this subject up seriously in time, and it would seem to be good engineering to forestall such a movement by at least giving the rails their full conductive strength, which can be obtained by welding the joint. The English and other European nations have strict laws in force on this question and enforce them to the letter.

The English Board of Trade rules provide for elaborate tests tn be made periodically, and will not allow a loss on the nega- tive lines from the furthest point to the power station to ex- ceed 7 volts.

Henry A. Everett, of the Everett-Moore Syndicate, seldom takes out a party in his private car, "The Josephine, "that he does not undertake to reduce previous records. Last week the car made a remarkable run from Cleveland to Detroit over the Lake Shore Electric and Detroit, Monroe & Toledo lines. It left the Public Square in Cleveland at 12:30 and arrived at Toledo at 3 .-46 p. m. Here there was a slight delay, but the run to the Russell House in Detroit was made by 5 :43 p. m. The distance is 178 miles. The Lake Shore (steam) has a train which leaves Cleveland at 12:45 ^^c^ runs by way of Sandusky and Toledo, reaching Detroit at 4:30. The distance by this route is 171 miles, so that the electric run was two minutes faster over a route 7 miles longer. It is stated that the run was made with- out interfering in any way with the regular schedule.

April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

595

FUNERAL CAR AT BUFFALO

In response to numerous requests from undertakers and tlie public generally, the International Railway Company, of Buf- falo, has put in service a special funeral car for the use of funeral parties desiring to go to cemeteries in the suburbs of Buffalo, Niagara Falls, Lockport and the Tonawandas.

The car was formerly a 28-ft. body passenger car and was rebuilt at the company's shops. It has two compartments, one about 19 ft. long, containing six cross seats and a short longi-

INTERIOR OF LARGE COMPARTMENT OF FUNERAL CAR

tudinal seat along one side and five cross seats and two short longitudinal seats on the other. The second compartment is about 9 ft. long and is intended for the casket and the pall- bearers or immediate family of the deceased. This smaller compartment has a longitudinal seat along one side. The

casket is carried in an enclosed case or compartment extend- ing along the other side.

The casket compartment is about Sj/^ ft. long, 32 ins. wide, and the top comes about to the level of the window rail. The top of this compartment forms a convenient place for the floral contributions. Access to the casket compartment is had through

a door from the outside of the car. The door is hinged at tlie bottom and is let down much as is the Ijertli in a Pullman

EXTERIOR (.)F Ft'NER.XL CAR, WITH CASKET COMPARTMENT

CLOSED

ARRANGEMENT OF SMALLER COMPARTMENT

sleeper. It is held by chains and spring rollers, similar to those used on Pullman berths.

The casket rests on a sliding floor or shelf. When the casket is to be placed in the car, the door is let down, the sliding shelf is pulled out and tlie casket is placed on this shelf and firmly

secured in place l)v means of pegs placed along the sides and ends. The pegs go into holes in ihe slielf, there 1 icing several lines of these Iioles, so that any size of casket can be accommo- dated. The shelf bearing the casket is then pushed back into the compartment and the door closed and locked.

The exterior ami interior of the car is Unislicd in dark green.

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STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

with heavy dark green draperies at the windows and doors. The seats are the Hale & Kilburn high-back type, with high roll-back and finished in dark green leather. The car is heated with Consolidated electric heaters.

The car is mounted on Brill 27 trucks, with four GE 1000 motors and Christensen air brakes.

The car is named "Elmlawn," after one of the large suburban cemeteries. A charge of from $25 to $35 is made for the use of the car, depending upon the distance it has to travel. It is engaged for most of the funerals going to the outlying ceme- teries, and the greater comfort, privacy and convenience of the funeral car, as compared with horse-drawn coaches, seems to be appreciated by the public.

*^

THE OPERATION OF AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC TRACK SWITCHES

BY SIDNEY DIAMANT

The importance of developing every detail in street railway operation which will assist in the proper maintenance of car ser- vice schedules has for a long time been recognized by operating officials. Under conditions of heavy traffic in the streets of our largest cities, a very few delays, even if of slight duration each, are sufficient to entirely disorganize the schedules of an entire division, which will result in a serious loss to the operating company. Studies of operating conditions with the view of eliminating the possibilities of delays are, therefore, of par- ticular interest to large railway companies, and in this connec- tion the use of the automatic track switch lias offered many attractions as a means of accomplishing this end.

The need of provisions of this nature are perhaps more keenly felt in the city of New York than anywhere else in this country, although there are unquestionably many other cities where the same problem has grown to troublesome proportions. The inevitable delays at switching points, especially upon lines where in "rush" hours cars are operated upon twenty seconds' headway or less, amount to a very serious matter, and in con- sequence the New York City Railway Company has for some time been conducting an extensive series of experiments along this line. The results are of interest and, furthermore, are very promising in their relation to future work in this direction. As a positive assurance of operation at the desired moment, an automatic contrivance eclipses any attempt at punctuality which human attendance may offer, and, while its first cost may in some cases appear unreasonably large, the expense for installa- tion of the electric automatic track switch is compensated for by the reduction in future operating outlay. The New York City Company has installed several automatic switches at vari- ous points, and is making preparations for the installation of several others in the near future.

Numerous and well-grounded reasons exist which strongly favor the operation of switches by automatic means rather than have a switchman stationed at every switching point for the purpose of manually controlling the switch tongue move- ment. The continuous expense for manual labor, taken in the ^gg^'^gate for all the switchmen required upon a large city system, involves an expense item of great size. The presence of switchmen at important switching points involves additional office expenses and detail in time keeping, and also adds to the duties of the inspectors in charge of workmen of that class. When subjected to extreme weather conditions, the switchmen develop inactive tendencies because of physical discomfort, while in event of heavy traffic, the man may find it difficult to reach the switch always at the desired moment, on account of the danger to which he would subject himself, and in the con- fusion will necessarily cause delays in the operation of cars. Again, the switchman, if careless, may throw a switch only part way over, which will result in serious damage to the

equipment by causing the "plow," or underground trolley con- tact device (as used in New York City), to take one track while the car truck takes the other. When the switch mechanism is operated manually from the street, the hand lever must either remain in position or else be inserted in the bell-crank jaw at each shifting of the switch ; the former is undesirable because of obstruction to street traffic, and the latter is a source of de- lay. Under conditions of manual operation and in the absence of a regular switchman, on the other hand, the motorman from the car must alight and operate the hand lever, which obviously infringes on the schedule.

An automatic switch operating contrivance enables the mo- torman to operate the switch from the platform of the car while it is in motion, and entirely without outside assistance. Several designs of automatic track switches have been devised, em- l)racing operation by both mechanical and electrical means. Both types have their merits, but the mechanical species have in general offered less promise of reliability under the un- usually severe conditions of operation to which such a device will be subjected. The New York City Railway Company has accordingly devoted its attention to the electric type of switch.

Plan o'^ Conduc-i-or Bars

Inswlated Section

FIG. l.-WIRING SCHEME BETWEEN TROLLEY CONDUCTOR EARS AND SWITCH MAGNETS FOR THE OPERATION OF THE TRACK SWITCH

and has in use several installations of two different manufac- turers of the latter class. One of these was built by the Baldwin & Rowland Switch & Signal Company, New Haven, Conn., and the other by the American Automatic Switch Company, New York.

The American switch was described in these columns in the issue of Dec. 19. 1903. A diagrammatic view of the Baldwin & Rowland switch is shown in Fig. i. As will be noted, it em- braces two electric circuits in parallel, one of the common leads connecting to the insulated section and the other to the live underground conductor or trolley bar on the same side as the insulated section. In each of the parallel circuits are two oper- ating solenoids A4R and ML, a bridge switch sr and si and a steadying magnet inr and ml. When a car is passing over the insulated section with power on, the cores CC, which are joined by a yoke attached to the operating link OL, are attracted to- ward the operating magnets MR- The operating link is con- nected to a bell crank which operates the switch tongue mechan- ism, as indicated. The lower end of the connecting link car- ries the roller R. which, as the plungers move, rolls along the under side of the balance lever BL. The position of the balance lever, the unstable setting of which is maintamed by the at- traction between the magnet mr and its armature AR, controls the distribution of current to one of the parallel circuits. Only after the plow has left the insulated section does the longer arm of the balance lever descend. The next car passing over the section with power on would throw the switch tongue back to its former position. The function of the magnets mr and ml

April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

597

is to maintain current in only one of the parallel circuits, and thus prevent to and fro motion of the tongue while the plow is on the insulated section ; in the absence of these magnets, just whether or not the final position of the switch would be the one desired for the car schedule, would depend upon the par- ticular part of the insulated section the plow was when the car stopped, and also upon the rapidity of operation of the switch tongue mechanism.

Fig. 2 shows diagrammatically the standard application of the American switch for the operation of switch movements upon the lines of the New York City Railway Company. Ad- ditional consideration is involved in the operation of switches upon the lines of this company, on account of the use of the underground contact system of electric operation, as the switch- ing mechanism must throw the slot guide for the "contact plow" as well as the switch point, in order that the plow will be directed to the proper track slot in switching.

The application of the electric switch mechanism for accom- plishing this result is here illustrated. The electric switch operates through a system of levers in conjunction with an auxiliary mechanism by which the switching can be accom- plished from a bar inserted through a street plate at one side, as shown. A spring-operated retaining or locking leverage is

adopted by the New York City Railway Company as the sim- plest method of instructing motormen in the operation of the electric type of automatic switch. As indicated in this plan, there is located about 45 ft. in advance of the switch tongue an insulated section in one of the conductor bars of the under- ground trolley system, which section provides for the opera- tion of the automatic switch, as above explained. In order to indicate the location of this section, as well as to serve as a guide for the various movements in the switching operation, whitewash marks are maintained on the surface of the pave- ment, which furnish the motormen the information as indicated on the plan.

As will be noted, a V-shaped mark indicates the approach to the insulated section ; the wide mark extending entirely across the track further on, indicates the position for the first stop, where the front platform of the car must be brought to a stop when it is desired to change the position of the switch point. Upon then starting the car, a narrow mark extending entirely across the track indicates the position for the motorman to shut off power in passing the gap in the conductor bar (to avoid ex- cessive arcing), while a similar mark extended half-way across the track shows the position for resuming the power after pass- ing the insulating break. The further wide whitewash mark

FIG. 2.— DETAILS OF THE MECHANISM FOR OPERATING THE TRACK SWITCH AND PLOW GUIDE, AS ARRANGED FOR CONTROL BY THE AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC SWITCH— NEW YORK CITY RAILWAY COMPANY

provided on the end of the electric switch rod, by which the system is partially locked in either position of throw; this, in connection with the semi-locking action of the electric switch, makes the switching action very effective. As may be noted, the various levers of the switching mechanism are provided with adjustments by which their throw may be changed to ac- commodate changes in track alignment.

The switch mechanism is, as may be noted, enclosed in a water-tight case, which is filled with oil for the lubrication of the moving parts within, and which also provides immunity from interruptions due to dirt and other extraneous causes. The magnet coil is also enclosed in a water-tight case, which is filled with transformer oil, thus protecting the magnet from moisture. The wires leading into the magnet coil are intro- duced through stuffing boxes.

The details of the American switch mechanism have, as above stated, been previously mentioned in these columns. As will be remembered from the same, the action of this switch is posi- tive, causing a complete throw each time the current is passed through the solenoid coil ; in this way splitting of the switch tongue and derailment of the car is impossible. The action of the mechanism is such as to partially lock in either position of the switch tongue movement, although the lock is not suffi- ciently tight to prevent the switch movement being thrown by means of the usual street switch lever.

Fig. 3 illustrates in plan a section of track at a switching point, and illustrates the operating method which has been

immediately before reaching the switch tongue indicates the position in which the car should make its stop before taking the switch when it is noticed in approaching the insulated sec- tion that the switch point is properly placed for the destination of the car, this latter movement providing that the car shall drift across the insulated section without power, in order not to operate the switch mechanism.

To study the modus operandi, let it be assumed that the switch tongue is set for the straight track, and that a motorman, advancing in the direction shown, desires to turn to the left. Upon coming to the electric switch warning mark, he turns off the power and allows the car to drift. Seeing that the switch is set contrary to his route, he brings his car to a stop when the front bumper is over the first stop mark, in which position the plow of the car is on the insulated section marked IS-, and which is in series with the switch solenoid. The car is then started with the controller handle at the first or second notch, which passes a comparatively small current through the oper- ating coil and throws the tongue. When the front bumper reaches a position over the "off" mark, the motorman turns the power oft', in order to prevent an arc at the insulating break, and when the "on" mark is reached, the power is again turned on, as by that time the plow has come again in contact with the live section of the conductor bar.

If, on the other hand, tlic motorman finds the s\vitch point set properly for the route of his car, he is instructed to approach the insulated section at a speed sufficient to drift over the en-

598

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

tire gap without power. This prevents current from passing through the switch solenoid coil, and thus the switch point is not disturbed. His procedure in this case is, upon approaching the V-shaped warning mark at a fair speed, to shut off power and drift entirely over the insulated section to the second stop position, after which he may continue upon his trip.

Special instructions are given the motorman concerning the operation of the switches in case of double-throw of the switch mechanism due to being required to stop and start a second time on the insulated section, due to congested street traffic or any other cause, which will result in returning the switch point to the position in which it was found originally. In this event, he is required to throw his controller handle back to zero and

BreoK in oondmctor bora

'in switch -t-ont^i.

BreoK in condi/\ofor bors

£"■■ Stop ■Sfop here whan awi+ch

\5 set in i-K^ht poai + ion

On

\^^€>top S+op here when switch IS not set \n i-icjht position

4-

Cent

re ot 1

n svii at edsecV ion

ElectncL Qwiich Wornirx

Hi

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I M

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FIG. 3.— DIAGRAM SHOWING THE USE OF WARNING AND GUIDING MARKS FOR DIRECTING THE MOTORMAN IN OPERATING THE ELECTRIC SWITCHES

again turn on power the third time while on the insulated sec- tion, which will bring the switch point to the desired position. The motorman must in such a case, however, take precautions not to stop on the insulating break, which would prevent start- ing, and thus cause serious delay to the car until pushed over by the car following. This is a practical feature of the opera- tion which will be readily apparent, the possibility for which trouble being due to the extremely congested conditions of vehicular trafhc in New York City.

Among the advantages of both types of electric switches is the ease of access to all parts, which permits of ready inspec- tion, their convenience of operation and quickness in action.

The American type of switch has been under trial for over two years, and now is in use in different sections of the city, and several more are at present being installed. Among its ad- vantages determined during this time the following may be cited : There are no wearing surfaces in the mechanism what- ever to change the action, while the enclosure underground in a water-tight metal box prevents the contact of dirt or water with the magnet or other parts. One magnet moves the switch tongue in either of the two directions ; the cam plate is arranged to produce a partial lock upon the switch bar, but still does not render the switch inoperative by the hand lever in event of trouble to the automatic mechanism. The switch operates in all weathers.

The automatic switches which are to be installed upon the lines of the company during the coming spring will be placed in locations where street traffic congestion will be most likely to interfere with the operation of the cars; in this way a very tliorough trial of the device may be made before extending its use more generally throughout the city. This does not in- volve any question of the advisability as to the use of the automatic switch, as its advantages far overweigh any objec- tions to its use. The financial advantages of the introduction nf these switches are very considerable, as in each case they will obviate the necessity of two switchmen, one for day and the other for night service. As these switchmen are paid ap- proximately $2 per day, this means a saving of $4 per day, or $1,460 per year (365 days), which at an interest rate of 6 per cent would warrant an expenditure of over $20,000, neglecting attendance and repairs to the automatic switch. There are upward of 140 switching points upon the lines in New York City, so that an idea may be had of the possibilities in this direction. If 100 switches are installed the annual saving will thus grow to $146,000 — an amount worthy of consideration.

♦♦«

CREATING TRAFFIC— IV. WHAT AND WHEN TO ADVERTISE

BY E. P. HULSE

In the previous three issues the writer has considered tht newspapers, bill-posters and other channels of publicity for making public announcements, but of equal or greater im- portance is to determine what to advertise through them. As to the pleasure travel, there are many things all ready to handle on the system, such as historic spots, recreation grounds and public events of one kind and another. But the best traffic man is the one that causes public events to grow where none existed before — in other words, to originate new reasons for crowds gathering at points where his road will get the benefit. On the principle that the nimble sixpence makes the shilling, he should remember that the short haul boosts up the earnings per car- mile. A study of his parks, picnic grounds, historic spots, sub- urban routes, swiftest schedules will develop how best to adver- tise these regular features, and the public events that occur by the calendar or that can be. foreseen can easily have sufficient publicity given them.

Some of the events that can be "created" are city days at your various resorts, music festivals, electric carnivals, family reunions, gatherings of all orders and societies, special outings on the holidays of the various nationalities in your territory, political conventions, labor meetings for all sorts of purposes, water fetes, children's days, horse races, band competitions on a large scale, clay and live pigeon shoots, firemen's play-outs, old-timers' reunions, sham battles, and so on without end. Plan them well beforehand, get influential individuals inter- ested, work them up, nurse them along and aid them, but sel- dom "stand" for them. "Under the auspices of" be your watch- word ! The nickel, not the glory — amen !

April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

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City days at some resort could include band concerts, ball games by rival local nines, clay pigeon shoot, mammoth tug-of- war, hurdle and obstacle races and field sports. Get the most prominent citizens to act as judges, have the prizes donated by local firms and displayed in their windows and work on civic pride for your publicity. Music festivals might include all the musical societies of a State, if no State organization already exists through which it could be worked. There should be a score of State soloists, vocal and instrumental, an immense festival chorus, a few singers of perhaps national reputation and a symphony orchestra. Plan it for several days, where the company is interested in a hotel, if possible — and let the public know about it. Many of these great events are pulled off in apparent secrecy. Electric carnivals in parks and picnic grounds at night are based principally on some extra current, strings of incandescents and perhaps several gross of Chinese lanterns. One or two spectacular attractions to focus attention on beforehand and for the crowds to talk about afterward, in addition to the regular amusement features of the resort, and the natural gayety of the people under these circumstances will fill out the carnival. Family reunions work themselves. A few hours with the directories of the cities along the line or in interviewing some of the old inhabitants and you can learn the family names in your territory best adapted for your de- signs. Seek out the influential individuals bearing the names that you have selected, give them the "suggestion," and with a little assistance they will do the rest. But it is not the Smiths, Browns, Joneses and Robinsons, necessarily, that make success- ful reunions. Select names that are perhaps unusual enough to excite interest in those bearing them as to the extent of the family connection. In this same way picnics on the holidays of all the nations of Europe are made profitable. Secret orders, particularly the military branches, use special cars nowadays to a great extent, visiting other lodges or gathering for an out- ing or parade. Banquets having political "blackbirds served in a pie" are more enjoyable when partaken of at some pleasant resort. Labor unions can muster thousands for all purposes from sympathy meetings for raising aid to most enjoyable out- ings with field sports on the programme. Special features for children's days are fancy dancing for prizes by a limited num- ber of entries from each city on the system, free rides on the carousel for the first thousand entering the park, a Scotch Highlander bagpiper, or some such inducement. Band com- petitions, firemen's play-outs, sham battles, farmers' days, county fairs, street carnivals, military tournaments, etc., re- quire more of company assistance, but they seldom fail to fill the receivers' safes. Sometimes the public is in just the humor for a big barbecue, clam-bake or watermelon cutting, and the unusual feature causes a great deal of talk. Sports of all kinds are an unfailing source of revenue. Some companies own baseball franchises and maintain the grounds. Where the haul is short, the population large and the enthusiasm high, the re- sult is certain. Much can be done also by working up minor leagues for baseball, handball, basketball, bowling, etc. ; get- ting up track meets, games of Gaelic football, launch, boat and canoe races, automobile contests, swimming matches and dozens of other variations that play on the national love of exercise.

I do not advise road managements to adopt the methods that are followed in popularizing a midway at a great world's fair, nor should they all attempt to have Dreamlands on their line, but there are many good drawing cards among the "big spec- taculars" that amusement companies are ready to give at your resort, such as water spectacles showing land and sea battles or volcanic eruptions, engine collisions, submarine boats, fake airships, diving horses and elks, and the whole series of balloon and parachute acts. These require careful planning if they are to be made successes, and not, as in some cases that have shocked the country, catastrophes. Crowds nuist be kept under control and at a proper distance. At one resort this last sum-

mer, where an engine collision was advertised, the crowd forced its way too near the track, a panic followed, the management refused to give the exhibition and the disappointed ones wrecked the hotel on the grounds. At the least, these spec- tacles call for constant watchfulness or your water-walker may go out into the lake for his act in a dangerous state of intoxica- tion and make the spectacle ridiculous and perhaps serious. I am somewhat "gun-shy" from experience with these features, but if you know where to look for trouble and avert it you can sometimes use them to great advantage. Some resorts have permanent features, such as captive balloons, imitation battle- ships floating in the lake, and even submarine boats. I shall make no mention of the long list of customary permanent fea- tures at amusement resorts, but only of the movable ones trav- eling the country over or of permanent features of an unusual nature. The traffic man's business is not park building, but creating travel.

Sometimes a spectacle company can be secured for the entire season at a very low figure which is prepared to give a dozen of the smaller feats, especially if the contract is made early enough in the season. This gives them a "backbone" to work on during the summer ; and they will fill their side contracts for special days or weeks at other resorts at a higher figure of profit. They can usually give two performances, afternoon and night, and as many Sunday "stunts" as wanted, varying the act each week. Their repertoire usually includes the balloon acts — single and double ascensions, single and double parachute drops, balloon races, cannon and torpedo release parachute drop, etc.; the "slide for life," high dive, bicycle act on high wire with trapeze, bicycle dive into water, loop the loop and loop the gap, high-wire walking, walking on water, etc. Aside from the regular attractions at the resort, a spectacle of this kind is a good focusing point for the afternoon's or evening's entertainment features.

Most amusement resorts have their own band, but special band concerts, especially on Sunday afternoon, with some well- known organization, or the local bands, either single or com- bined, are always high cards in drawing crowds. Their enter- taining value, and incidentally their advertising value, are heightened by the addition of a popular soloist, either vocal or instrumental, without too nnich extra expense.

A few good animals, without attempting to make the menage- rie too large, pay as a rule; but this is a matter to be decided by local conditions, in which many things enter besides the size of the population to draw from.

The trafific man, though, can make his greatest financial hits for the road by taking advantage of sudden opportunities, like the stock broker. Accidents, large fires and other calamities can be made to yield money for the road if the traffic man does not allow his enthusiasm to appear too cold-blooded. If a freight train wreck has been rapidly photographed and the pictures displayed, and notice be made of the location of the wreck on the bulletin boards at terminal points, the car-fare results are likely to equal those from a prepared engine col- lision of the spectacular order. Large fires, explosions, floods are in this class. I have known of instances in the interior where the discovery of large fossilized bones has been seized on to draw thousands. On the coast, races at sea, battleships in port, new vessels on trial runs, launchings, the appearance of a school of whales have been treated in the same way. As an instance in pomt to show how the trafific man must be pre- pared to work rapidly when the proper moment comes, it is the custom to have dasher signs printed in advance for some events which may be supposed reasonably to occur once or twice in a season. He will have in his bill room a supply announcing:

HIGHEST SURF IN MANY YEARS AT BLANK BEACH

The Sight of a Lifetime

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STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

or perhaps another pile ready for the dashers and wall cases and bulletin boards reading:

BLANK RIVER ON A RAMPAGE

Crowds Line the Banks

If the road has no resorts there are certainly some picnic spots on the line, a grove or perhaps a hill from which a view may be had. May-flower and arbutus hunting and autumn leaf gathering and botanical expeditions may be held forth cleverly as inducements for city dwellers to take a little suburban ride. If your line goes no further than the city limits find something- inside to draw the crowds to. How many people in New York go within a mile of the obelisk and yet have never seen it, sim- ply because they have never received the direct suggestion ? They know that it is there ; that if their interest in it is ever awakened they can view it ; but nothing ever quickens this knowledge into impulse.

The most important matter of excursions I have purposely left until near the last. Special car business from points along your own line can be greatly increased by some "heavy think- ing and light hand-shaking." In the territory outside the zone directly served by your own line there is plenty of money waiting for the proper suggestion to start it your way. Up-to- date electric railways are now running joint excursions, and some even enter into arrangements with the steam roads and .give people living comparatively near to some resort or his- toric spot the opportunity that they had never had, because they did not know enough about the schedules of the two lines to make the trip easily. I brought 780 people over 25 miles of steam road before they connected with the electric cars, and had their patronage all day from 10 a. m. to 7 p. m. in the restaurants and at the amusement devices, and my share of the advertising was only $13. Also one carload went in another direction over the lines of the company when they left the steam train on a trip to the coast that cost 90 cents apiece for the round trip. That excursion was repeated several times, and when the weather was favorable the same success resulted. I have brought special excursions of fraternal orders, high schools, Sunday schools, etc., miles over the steam roads before connecting with the electrics, and have always found that they liked the novelty. Frequently, if they receive the proper sug- gestion, they prefer to get up the excursion themselves to make money for their society. I give them a rate for the special cars and help them on rates with connecting roads, details of transportation, advertising, etc. They charge what they please for the tickets and settle with the roads for the special cars. This plan frequently nets quite a little sum for their treasury. The main hitch with electric railways in getting up joint ex- cursions is the apportionment each should receive from the specials and what they should pay for the crews, but more par- ticularly the difficulty in arranging joint excursions is the mat- ter of liability in case of accident. That can be adjusted by a joint agreement, the tickets bearing some form like this on the backs : "The One, Two & Three Street Railway in issuing and selling these coupons, which are good for passage between Blank Square and Railway Park, acts only as agent of and for the Four, Five & Six Electric Railway and the Seven, Eight & Nine Electric Railway, and assumes no responsibility for any negligence whereby any passenger is injured or his property is injured or lost on any line other than its own, and the pur- chaser accepts the coupons subject to the above condition."

Sometimes where an organization guarantees several hundred on a joint excursion, the special form of ticket printed can in- clude the stub and the coupons for the fare limits of all the connecting roads, and even dinner, launch or theater coupons. This requires quite a little extra bookkeeping, but when the trouble taken brings several hundred people from a distance who had never seen your resort the "word of mouth" advertis-

ing that they do when they return home is almost to be figured among the assets for future seasons. I have sometimes gone so far out of the usual zone of travel for my lines that arrange- ments had to be made with three other connecting lines before the special car could be run. Each road supplies a pilot as the car comes onto its tracks. The opportunities in this direction are only limited by the traffic agent's ingenuity and the time he is willing to give to perfecting his plans.

The real estate business has been entered into successfully by many roads. Suburban lots are boomed and sold, and some- times wholly new communities have been planted by the elec- tric railway. The traffic man, when he sees a new house going up in the suburbs on his line, can set down in the asset column an additional $30 per year for every adult male occupant if in- side the fare limit to the center of the city and $60 per year if outside the fare limit. In other words, every new house is as good as a special car rented.

But summer is not your only harvest. Winter is not neces- sarily solely for fighting snow and ice and for retrenchment. Along your lines perhaps there are good spots for fishing through the ice, skating, curling, horse trotting, ice-boating, hockey contests, etc. Some roads have places where winter parties can enjoy dancing or skating at will, tobogganing or bowling or such sports as basketball. At least one road that I am familiar with has turned a brick car house, which consolida- tion of lines rendered unnecessary, into an immense indoor ice- skating rink, and has never had cause to regret the novel line of business.

These suggestions on traffic creating have dealt mainly with the pleasure travel, but there is a rapidly widening field in the business travel that is coming over to the electric lines from the steam roads. Business men as yet have not enough confidence in electric railway schedules, and fear delays by the power going off or some minor accident. Still, there are certain points where the electric roads have the advantage of the steam lines, and the traffic agent of the former should harp constantly on these, not forgetting to put a map of some sort into all his advertising when possible. Electric roads, as com- pared with the steam lines, have comparatively no noise and no smoke, dust or cinders, and they pass through more beautiful scenery with better opportunity to see it from the car window. They make trips between cities with greater frequency than the steam roads, and in almost as quick time, and at a lower rate of fare. These facts should weigh in the balance with business men when on trips where the mileage does not run over two figures, and sometimes where it does.

COLORED ROUTE LANTERNS USED BY THE SPRINGFIELD STREET RAILWAY COMPANY

Instead of using illuminated signs at night, the Springfield Street Railway Company employs an effective electric lantern for the designation of routes. The lantern is hung at the right- hand side of the motorman's vestibule and can easily be dis- cerned by would-be passengers before the car comes within hailing distance. It consists of a small metal box frame hold- ing two incandescent lamps, one above the other, and provided with panels of different colored glass for use on different routes. Thus, an orange light above a red signifies an "Aga- wam" car, a straight red light "Brightwood," and so on. The scheme appears to work very satisfactorily in the case of resi- dents of the city, and as for strangers, the publication of all the route signs and time-tables in the various weekly "guides" displayed at hotels, clubs and other gathering places, facilitates the acquisition of the system adopted. A second lantern of the same coloring is also hung at the rear vestibule on the left- hand side of the car, facing forward. In some cases three lamps are employed to give the proper combinations.

ApRir, I, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

THE QUESTION BOX

Tlie Question Box this week includes questions and answers pertaining to general topics, the track department and the master mechanic's department. Of special interest is the de- scription on page 604 of the portable pile driver used by the Detroit United Railway.

A.— GENERAL

A I. — What various methods do you employ for advertising your road and its attractions?

This company is already preparing its advertising matter for the summer season's business, the experience of the writer for many years past proving it is a good idea to start on this matter early in the year. The company has four resorts, reached exclu- sively by the 13s miles of its system. These are as follows: Canobie Lake Park, a high-class amusement ground of 50 acres; Central Park, a smaller outing resort; Hampton Beach, with two hotels, large Casino and group of cottages owned by the com- pany; and Seabrook Beach, exclusively for cottagers. Half-sheet posters in colors have been designed, the one for Canobie show- ing a girl in canoeing costume against a full shore background, and that for Hampton having a girl in bathing dress against a full surf background. Only eight words on each poster tell the name of the resort and the line that it is on, a series of half-tone panels on the margin of each poster informing the public, in bet- ter detail than any amount of description, what each place has to offer in the way of theaters, band concerts, roller coaster, athletic grounds, bathing, boating, etc. Half are printed on pasteboard and half on heavy paper. Locations have been secured in store windows and in other public places in Lowell, Lawrence, Andover, Methuen, Haverhill, Amesbury and Newburyport, Mass.; Man- chester, Exeter, Nashua, Portsmouth, Dover and Rochester, N. H., and in the smaller places along the lines, and these are paid for solely with a season ticket for one of the three theaters, passing two people each week. The extra riding which originates with the possession of this pass as an incentive, and which aver- ages 25 cents a head for the round trip, amounts to enough to make this advertising plan self-supporting from this source alone. When the public is confronted with the constant recurrence of these posters in window after window on the main streets of each city, the effect of the strong impression in creating the desire to ride is one that can be counted on. Souvenir postal cards form a splendid means of advertising a resort. As they are sent by one friend to another their effect is the same as a verbal recommenda- tion of the resort. This is a form of advertising that really pays a large profit. For Canobie Lake Park there will be seven de- signs of cards in color and seven in sepia. The order will be 100,000, following the experience of last year's sales of the plain ones. For Hampton Beach four views have been ordered. A novel way of advertising the "sea-food dinner" at Hampton Beach has been devised. The menu will be printed on a postal card 7 ins. x 5'/^ ins. Bathing views cover the back, the daily change in the bill of fare being printed in a mortised space in the view. They may be addressed at the table and mailed from the cashier's desk. The printer is working on a little double folder to fit the ordinary size envelope, designed to draw banquet and din- ner party business to the immense restaurant at Canobie Like Park. Many large conventions were drawn there last year by featuring this big hall. The little folder has a cover design of a smiling waitress presenting the menu, the latter being enlarged in comparison with the figure, in the manner familiar to every l^hotographer who has had to record the capture of a large fish held in the angler's hand. Inside the folder there are two panel half-tones of the restaurant and the lake, two reproductions of typical banquet menus, an outline of the facilities of the place for large spreads, quotations from the newsjiapers and aftcr-dinncr speeches made in past seasons praising the service, etc. Solely for advertising the hotels and cottages at Hampton Beach a book- let will go to press shortly containing half-tone views of the shore and the interiors of the buildings, with descriptive matter. Later in the season the company sends out to all organizations and so- cieties and lodges in this territory a booklet describing the fea- tures along the lines and containing half-tones of all its resorts and "beauty spots," and making a bid for special car and excur- sion busin ess. A liberal use of the newspapers, commercial bdl- boards and boy distributers putting out maps and time-tables for the public and posting up wall time-tables in all frequented places follows in the proper season. A blotter containing a panoramic view of Canobie Lake Park, with a list of its attractions, has been printed for early distribution in cities off the lines from which ex-

cursions will be run in the summer. In past years a company publication called the "Bulletin" has attracted a great deal of at- tention, and has been the means of bringing the company and the public into closer and friendlier relations. Dozens of minor methods are made use of in season to boom each attraction and event and excursion according to its importance. This is the third year that this system has maintained an advertising and passenger soliciting department. As to whether it pays, the writer would state that another large New England system has this year es- tablished a similar department, with rumors of others to follow.

E. P. HuLSE, Adv. Agt., New Hampsire Tract. Co.'s lines, Haverhill, Mass.

We use the local press for advertising our park attractions, our interurban line, and for presenting our time-tables. We employ as press agent a reporter connected with one of the local papers to do the write-ups, and find this a good medium of reaching the people. We also place banners on car fenders for advertising special attractions, and frequently distribute dodgers in cars.

Superintendent or Transportation.

Printed time cards, large i6-in. x 19-in. cards judiciously dis- tributed, and a folder with time card in the center.

C. E. Palmer, Supt., Cincinnati, Dayton & Toledo Tract. Co.

A 3. — How much money can be spent profitably by an elec- tric railway company for advertising?

Depends upon what it has to advertise. We advertise our power business by ads in daily papers and by booklets sent to all possible power users in our territory. L. M. Levinson, Mgr.,

Shreveport (La.) Tract. Co.

A 4. — What are some of the ways by which an electric rail- way company can kindle and foster a more kindly feeling and a fairer treatment on the part of the public press of its com- munity ?

By taking the press into its confidence whenever possible. The policy of giving reasons for changes in service, and for the com- pany's actions on matters of interest to the public, will bring the management into closer touch with the press, and will ensure fair treatment and a hearing before publication is made, unless there are particular reasons for the press to be hostile.

Superintendent of Transportation.

By keeping the papers advised of matters of public interest, such as changes in schedules ; by giving press representatives free trans- portation, and by taking advertisements in the papers.

L. M. Levinson, Mgr., Shreveport (La.) Tract. Co.

A 5. — What are some of the ways by which an electric rail- way company can kindle and foster a more kindly feeling to- ward it on the part of the public ?

By having business-like employees and trainmen of good man- ners ; by maintaining schedules; by furnishing clean cars, and by strict care and prompt return of all lost articles found by em- ployees on cars. L. M. Levinson, Mgr.,

Shreveport (La.) Tract. Co.

A 6. — Several electric railway companies are publishing- regular leaflets or periodicals for public distribution, with the idea of bringing about a better relation between the conipanv and the public. What do you think of this suggestion? Have you ever tried the suggestion of publishing such a periodical? What were the results ?

The writer was much interested in reading the many replies in the Question Box Department of your issue for Feb. 18, page 319, in answer to Question A 6, referring to company publications. As early as 1902 the writer was publishing a four-page leaflet in the interest of the Georgia Railway & Electric Company, of At- lanta, Ga. This was called the "Daily Amusement Programme and Street Railway Bulletin." The daily issue in the spring of 1903 was 10,000, or 60,000 weekly (no Sunday paper being pub- lished), which I believe is a larger edition than was ever printed by any company for a publication of this character. It stood high in public favor, the chief of the fire department, for instance, sending in a "fire-line" badge with the announcement that it was the best newspaper in the city. Commencing with June, the edi- tion was run up to 12,000 daily, then 15,000 and even 18.000 on special days. The first year the company had the printing done

602

at a fixed price per thousand. The second year printing presses were located in one of the car houses, and the "Daily Bulletin" and some of the small printed forms of the company were handled there. This printing plant was leased, the advertisements in the "Bulletin" sustaining it. The feasibility of this as a regular plan is doubtful; much depends on the man engaged to run it. This plan enabled us to make night runs of the presses, when necessary, up to almost the time that the first cars started out. The folders were distributed not only in the cars, but piles were left in public places, such as hotels, cigar stands and soda water fountains; also about a hundred bunches of the leaflets were strung up to trolley poles at favorable points. This was done by a boy in the early morning hours. We found that all the leaflets in these bunches were taken before lo a. m. each day, and constant inspection of the street and sidewalk showed that few were thrown away and none maliciously torn down. Hundreds of people kept "complete files" of the publication each year. I have even considered the advisability under certain circumstances of supplanting newspaper advertising in the summer with a large edition of a bulletin. Newspapers are not read as closely in the summer months as in the long winter evenings, and I have always favored putting the suggestions directly into the people's minds, unhampered by com- petition with other matters of interest.

E. P. HuLSE, Adv. Agt., New Hampshire Tract. Co.'s lines, Haverhill, Mass.

Good. We do it each year. The educational pamphlet if prop- erly edited results in fewer accidents and educates the people into the habit of getting on and olT cars more promptly.

L. M. Levinson, Mgr., Shreveport (La.) Tract. Co.

A 8. — A company wishes to carry is own fire insurance by setting aside a certain percentage of its gross receipts each year to cover fire losses. What would be a safe percentage to allow?

Two per cent. L. M. Levinson, Mgr.,

Shreveport (La.) Tract. Co.

A 9. — Under what conditions can an electric railway com- pany venture to carry its own fire insurance on its various properties ?

The writer does not think a company can afford to carry its own fire insurance on its \arious properties unless buildings are so constructed as to be practically fire-proof, and are separated or divided in sections so arranged that fire could not spread and cause a general conflagration. Superintendent of Transportation.

If it has good organization of its barn employees with plenty of water, pump, fire hose and two well drilled foremen, one for day and one for night, who know what to do in emergencies. Water pressure must be at least 65 to 75 lbs. per square in., and fire hose must be of ample strength and good quality.

L. M. Levinson, Mgr., Shreveport (La.) Tract. Co.

A 10. — What percentage of your gross receipts are you pay- ing out through the claim department ?

For 1903 our claim department expense was 35-100 of i per cent of gross receipts. In 1904 this was reduced to 14-100 of i per cent. We think this low percentage is partly due to very rigid accident report rules, which are lived up to, and merit system of discipline, allowing small credits for every correct accident report turned in, and severe penalties for failure to turn in report. In this way we get complete reports on all minor accidents imme- diately, and this is generally quite an advantage.

R. P. Stevens, Supt., Everett (Wash.) Ry. & Elec. Co.

About 5 per cent. L. M. Levinson, Mgr.,

Shreveport (La.) Tract. Co.

A II. — A company wishes to set aside a certain fund each year to cover all accident claims. Should this fund be based on a definite sum per car-mile, or on a percentage of the total gross receipts? What would be a proper allowance?

About 8 per cent of the gross receipts, where the Supreme Courts are liberal, and all construction work is of the safest kind.

L. M. Levinson, Mgr., Shreveport (La.) Tract. Co.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

I.— THE TRACK DEPARTMENT I I. — In the construction of a suburban or interurban elec- tric railway, what are the deciding factors in determining the weight and section of rail to be used? State what weight and section you prefer, and why.

Weight on each wheel of car ; width of tread ; headway of trains ; speed and character of bond. We prefer 8o-lb. A. S. C. E. rail. Asst. Eng. Ry. Dept.

Weight of cars and speed. H. A. Tiemann,

New York City.

Weight of car and speed. We prefer T-rail of standard section, because it makes a better and cheaper track both to construct and maintain than other sections. We are using a 60-II). rail section, which is about right for our conditions.

J. Chas. Ross, Gen. Mgr., Steubenville (Ohio) Tract. & Light Co.

I 2. — What is the best type of rail for city service in unim- proved streets ?

Ordinary T if street is not to be paved. If street is to be paved in the near future, rail as described by the writer in answer to I 4- Asst. Eng. Ry. Dept.

The best type of rail for city service in improved or unim- proved streets is some type of T-rail. In the writer's judgment there is no type of girder rail that has yet been devised equal to a good T-rail section. The T-rail rides easier, lasts longer and maintains better joints than any girder section. The groove-rail sections are an especially undesirable type of rail, as the groove fills with dirt, ice, snow, sleet, etc., and in addition to these dangers there is also the question of expense ; elaborate types of groove now being rolled are very expensive, and yet the length of their lives is practically not increasing. As soon as the head of the rail wears down the flange of the wheel begins to ride on the tram of the rail, making very uneven riding and producing a great num- ber of broken flanges ; when the rail reaches this state of wear it is practically worn out, and the great weight of metal still remain- ing is only fit for the scrap heap. Regarding other types of girder rail the same e\'ils exist, but to a somewhat lesser degree. The height of the' T-rail to be used for city or interurban service de- pends entirely upon the paving necessary; for unimproved streets the writer would advocate a low, heavy section of T-rail, provided of course that there are no plans to have paving in the future. The low sections of T-rail are better than the high section, for the reason that they retain gage longer, as they are less liable to spread. This is very e\-ident, as the low sections are more firmly in posi- tion and are less liable to be "upset." The writer believes that the low sections of T-rail, say 4^^ ins., are the best that can be laid, presuming, of course, that the foundations are firm and lasting. The high sections with increased weight have greater strength, but this strength in many instances is not necessary on account of the excellent foundations which are now being laid under street railway tracks. P. Ney Wilson, Supervisor, So. Jersey Div.,

Public Service Cor., Camden, N. J.

I 3. — What advantages, if any, does a 9-in. girder rail pos- sess over a 7-in. girder?

A 9-in. girder rail allows a better foiuidation or bed for paving than a 7-in. girder. Asst. Eng. Ry. Dept.

No advantage. A 9-in. girder rail permits use of sand, stone, or granite blocks and 4 ins. of concrete under blocks and above top of ties. The 7-in. girder rail is cheaper ; is fully as durable, and permits use of brick or sheet asphalt paving with 4 ins. of con- crete under same. H. A. Tiemann,

New York City.

I 4. — If the conditions require a girder rail, which type would you prefer, semi-groove, full-groove, tram, center-bear- ing or Trilby section ? Please state your reasons in full for the preference.

Full groove ; one not wide enough to admit carriage and wagon wheels. While this, small groove shortens the life of car wheels and occasionally breaks the flanges, in our particular case it saves considerably more in paving bills, as the vehicles on the street

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

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April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

603

cannot follow the track and wear grooves in the paving. This city has very strong laws regarding paving. The railway company is compelled to keep in order the paving between the tracks and 2 ft. outside the rails, and so stringent is the city that we are often reported and fined in the police court for small depressions in the paving which have been temporarily overlooked and neglected.

Asst. Eng. Ry. Dept.

I 5. — When laying tracks, what space should be left between the ends of the rails for contraction and expansion ?

As girder rails in paved streets have only about one-fifth of their surface exposed to the elements, five-sixths of the rail being under the ground, the joints should be butted. Exposed rails on suburban and interurban roads shoidd be laid according to steam railroad practice, using standard shims for every 10 degrees change of temperature. Chief Eng. Ry. Dept.

I 9. — What means, machines, devices, special rigged cars, etc., do you know of for expediting or cheapening the work of ballasting and laying track? Please give sketch or photogiaph and detailed description, including cost.

The Detroit United Railway has built a portable pile driver which has been used with excellent results in interurban track work, and in building trestles and bridges. The illust-.ations herewith show the flat car carrying the pile driver and also the long closed car which is used to push the flat car. The upright leaders of the pile driver are 38 ft. high, and the diiver is pro- \ided with a 2200-lb. hammer. The frame supporting the weight

The question of space between the ends of the rail to provide for expansion and contraction is a mooted one, and has been given consideration and a great deal of study by some very prom- inent engineers. In paved streets, laid with a very heavy section of rail, we would not leave any opening at the joint at all. The writer believes that the elasticity of the metal would provide for any expansion or contraction, and, as a matter of fact, this has been practically worked out on our system. In open work, where track is exposed to changes in temperature, would leave }i-'m. space between the abutting ends of the rail, using 60-ft. lengths, presuming, of course, that this work be laid in winter ; in the summer would lay in open construction with an opening of J^-in. These figures have been borne out by experience. We believe, however, wherever it is possible the rail should be covered, and it has always been our purpose to keep our rails covered, at least up to the shoulder of the rail. We have some construction that is entirely open, but by using the above mentioned spaces we have had no trouble. In new construction every possible precaution should be taken in laymg any type of rail to cover it up and keep u covered as much as possible. This will provide against a great variety of troubles, particularly expansion and contraction.

P. Ney Wilson, So. Jersey Div., Public Service Cor., Camden, N. J.

If on private right of way, in extremely hot weather lay rails end to end; in moderate weather leave 3^-in. opening; in extremely cold weather leave l4.-m. opening. With 60-ft. rails leave twice these spaces at joints. If track is laid in country road and dirt is

TRjtiSTLE BUILT WITH PORTABLE PILE DRIVER

can be swung at right angles with the car to either side, and we ct "drive a pile 10 ft. from the center of the track on either side of the roadbed. Also, the upright frame is hinged at the bottom and can be lowered down to the top of the cab when the car is traveling over the road. In the upright position the frame is held by adjustable braces. There is a 25-hp steam hoist on the flat car for operating the hammer, and the frame is raised and lowered by

special drum on the hoist. The pile driver '.3 in use most of the year, and we employ about eight men on this work. The long coach is used as living apartments for the men when they are out on the interurban systems. The men eat and sleep in the coach ; the company furnishing the cooking utensils and fuel and also paying the cook, but each of the men making up the pile- driving gang pay at the rate of $2 a week for the supply of eatables. The car is

PORTABLE PILE-DRIVING OUTFIT, DETROIT UNITED RAILWAY

FRONT VIEW OF PILE DRIVER

to be filled to head of rail lay joints close except in extremely cold weather, when one-half the spaces mentioned should be left.

J. Chas. Ross, Gen. Mgr., Steubenville (Ohio) Tract. & Lt. Co.

I 6. — What are the determining factors in selecting ballast for a new suburban or interurban electric road ? Cost and suitability. J. Chas. Ross, Gen. Mgr.,

Steubenville (Ohio) Tract. & Lt. Co.

I 7. — What is the best material for ballast on a suburban or interurban electric road?

Broken stone, preferably lime-stone. J. Chas. Rnss, Gen Mgr., Steubenville (Ohio) i ract. & Lt. Co.

neatly furnished, having a sleeping apartment, sitting-room, dining-room and kitchen. All of our pile driving on the main lines is done at night after the regular cars are pulled in. We find this outfit effects a great saving in our bridge work as well as in track work. One of the illustrations shows the Canard River bridge on our Sandwich, Windsor & Amherstburg line in Canada, The bridge is 650 ft. long, and was built entirely with this machine, which not only drove the piles, but also hoisted the tim- bers into place. In working with the pile driver, we extend two girder rails out 5 ft. in advance of the last bent, which enables us to drive the next bent. The piles are then sawed ofT and the cap and stringers are hoisted into place with the aid of the hoist on the pile driver. This bridge was built at a cost of $9 per lineal foot, which price included all labor and material. The timber and piles were white oak. J. Kerwin, Supt. Tracks,

Detroit United Ry.

6o4

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

We have found the slag cars shown in the accompanying iUus- trations very convenient for handHng slag for ballast. We use two types of cars, a box car having 18 cubic yards capacity, and a dump-car having 10 cubic yards capacity. With the dump car we

\

1^	— /9-0 >
				IT

() ( )

SIDE AND END ELEVATION DUMP CAR, BIRMINGHAM

\

30- ni"

SIDE AND END ELEVATION SLAG CAR, BIRMINGHAM

I 14. — Have you had any experience with "creeping" rails, and how have you remedied this difficulty?

The creeping of rails is due to expansion, and is particularly evident in hot weather. We use 6o-ft. rails in partly open con- struction, and from practical experience we find that the creeping due to expansion is not any more evident with our 6o-ft. lengths than it is with our 30-ft. lengths. The most serious problem in this connection is the fact that the creeping will push the special work out of its proper position. The only ways to remedy this difficulty that have come to our attention, are either to cover up the rail flush to the head, reducing the expansion to a minimum, or else cut out a small section of the rail when the creeping would cause a dangerous condition. We had a peculiar experience in this connection. We were building some girder track, and while it was still open and subject to the direct rays of the hot sun it went so badly out of alignment that it became dangerous. A sprinkler was sent over the tracks and after the water had cooled the rail we found that it went back into its normal position.

P. Ney Wilson^ Supervisor, So. Jersey Div., Public Service Cor., Camden, N. J.

E.— THE MASTER MECHANIC'S DEPARTMENT E 130a. — A road has had considerable annoyance due to hand hole covers on motor cases becoming loose and dropping off. What can be done to stop this ?

We had trouble at one time from this source. Investigation de- veloped the fact that the trouble was due entirely to carelessness in the part of the men who inspected the motors, as they did not always take the trouble to see that the bolt holding the hand hole cover was properly tightened. We began charging the price of lost ' covers to the men responsible for this work and have had no more annoyance from missing covers. The men were instructed to use a spring washer whenever they found a nut that worked too easily on the holding bolt. Schenectady Ry. Co.

SIDE VIEW OF DLIMP CAR

E 148a. — What apparatus do you use for handling wheels and axles around the shops ?

The accompanying illustration contains a good suggestion for- handling wheels and axles about the shops. The tool shown is made of wood. The distance from the notch to lower end of tool is just a trifle longer than the radius of the wheels to be handled.

With this lever one man can take the heaviest pair of wheels and axle all over the shop with little trouble, turning the wheels around corners, lifting them on and off trucks, etc., with ease.

Anonymous.

CAR FOR HAULING SLAG

are able to dump the slag wherever we want it along the tracks. The cars are handled in trains drawn by electric locomotives.

Geo. H. Harris, Supt. Ry. Dept., Birmingham (Ala.) Ry. Lt. & Power Co.

E 154. — What is the best method of cutting circular discs of glass for headlights ?

One of the well-known supply firms makes a special machine for cutting circular headlight glasses. I have used it for some time and found it satisfactory. D. F. Carver.

April i, 1905.]

STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

605

LINE CONSTRUCTION FOR HIGH-PRESSURE ELECTRIC / RAILROADS

An interesting paper on this subject by George A. Damon was read at the meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers held in New York, March 24, 1905, by Prof. Sever, in the absence of the author.

Mr. Damon first described the line construction in use on the Valtellina three-phase, Spindlersfeld single-phase and Huber experimental lines in Europe, and then that on the Lansing, St. Johns & St. Louis Electric Railway, the Indianapolis & Cincinnati Traction Company and the Bloomington, Pontiac & Joliet Electric Railroad in this country. As particulars and views of all of these lines except the last have been published in these columns, and as a description of the Pontiac overhead construction appeared last week, the diagrams of the Pontiac line construction are published herewith, together with Mr. Damon's general conclusions :

REQUIREMENTS OF INSTALLATION

Bearing in mind the distinct requirements of th'e three classes

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Omj} susjcieniicn^cr hii^h feniion trallt^ C^ifi^ streets.

SUSPENSION FOR HIGH-TENSION TROLLEY IN CITY STREETS— BLOOMINGTON, PONTIAC & JOLIET RAILWAY

of roads already referred to, the problem of line construction may be discussed under the following heads :

1. Pressure and Insulation.

2. Location of Conductor.

3. Requirements for Safety and Stability.

As an entire paper might be devoted to any one of these subjects, there is offered an opportunity for considerable dis- cussion.

Pressure and Insulation. — The single-phase lines now in operation in this country have 3300-volt trolleys, and several lines under construction have also decided to use this pressure. From present appearances, therefore, 3300 volts is to be the standard for interurban lines. It would be well, however, to cons-ider just at this time whether it would not be advisable to use a trolley pressure of 6000 volts. From an operating stand- point there seems to be no reason why this higher pressure is not just as practicable as a lower one; and to get the full bene- fit of all the advantages inherent with the high-tension system the higher pressure should be adopted.

Even if a few of the first roads are built with a 3300-voit trolley, there is no reason why, with the catenary suspension, the insulation provided should not be capable of standing a working test of 6000 volts, so that when the time comes to double the pressure the expense of the change will be a minimum.

For steam railroad conditions, the larger amount of energy required indicates that a pressure of at least 15,000 volts will probably be desirable. Just where to strike a balance between the cost of copper and the cost of insulation for steam road work is a problem which should be carefully worked out; but there seems to be no reason at this time why pressures of over 10,000 volts should not be considered.

The catenary form of suspension affords so convenient a method of insulation that it should become standard practice for interurban electric lines. When selecting an insulator for this construction, mechanical strength should be the first con- sideration, and a few cents more spent on the insulator will insure an abundance of insulating qualities. As far as insula- tion is concerned, there is no reason why the catenary con- struction could not be operated at more than 30,000 volts, if desired. For pull-offs and cross suspensions to iron poles special porcelain insulators are being designed and used with success.

It has long been admitted that dry wood is one of the best insulators. The convenience with which a wooden rod fitted with suitable terminals can be worked into an overhead con- struction will commend this form of insulation. Impregnated with an insulating compound, and of sufficient length to with- stand high-pressure tests, the long wooden insulator is appli- cable to the insulation of guy wires, anchors and cross suspen- sion wires. Its use in actual practice will be watched with interest.

The use of a wooden bracket to hold the insulator for sup- porting the catenary will probably appeal to some as a step backward. As far as looks are concerned, however, it may be said that a wooden bracket of a section 3.5 ins. x 5 ins. presents an appearance fully as attractive as the ordinary cedar pole to which it is attached; and that a double-track road with a line of center poles equipped with wooden brackets will be much less offensive from an aesthetic point of view than a double row of side suspension poles raked outward in the usual fashion.

The wooden bracket has an element of safety not possessed by an iron support, as the insulating properties of the wooden arm would be useful in the case of the failure of an insulator. Unless the wooden bracket were wet it vvould safely hold up a 6000-volt catenary until the line could be repaired.

LOCATION OF CONDUCTOR AND COLLECTOR SYSTEMS

For moderate speed roads the natural tendency will lie to have the trolley wire where it has proved to be so thoroughly satisfactory — that is, over the center of the track, and to con- tinue to use the present trolley harp and wheel. For speeds not exceeding 40 m.p.h. to 50 m.p.h. at trolley pressures up to 3300 volts, this arrangement will work satisfactorily.

For high-speed electric lines there will be little objection to the conductor wire remaining over the track, provided it is properly suspended; but the danger of the ordinary trolley wheel jumping off the wire at high speeds will, no doubt, sug- gest the use of some form of collector other than the wheel. The bow, the roller and the shoe will each find advocates until more experience has been obtained and the results are reported and discussed.

Special cases will arise such as the installation of a high- pressure conductor wire over a road already equipped with a direct-current trolley, as was the case with the Ballston, N. Y., road. In such an event the catenary construction can be very nicely adapted to suspending the wire at the side of the track. This location could be advocated for an entirely new installa-

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tion on the grounds of cheaper first cost and some additional safety in case the wire should break and fall, but both these arguments lack sufficient weight to establish the wire in the side position as standard practice.

For steam road conditions considerable objection may be found to locating the conductor wire over the center of the track : the danger to trainmen standing on top of the cars ; the fouling of the conductor ; the deterioration of the insulation, and the destruction of the wire and supporting cables by the gases of locomotives which may jointly occupy the tracks; the blocking of traffic when it is necessary to repair a broken wire — all these are serious drawbacks to this location of the conductor for heavy railroad practice. To avoid the deleterious effect of

CATENARY SUSPENSION FOR TROLLEY ON PRIVATE RIGHT OF WAY ON BLOOMINGTON, PONTIAC & JOLIET RAILWAY

the locomotive gases it would seem to be imperative to place the contact wire at one side and as low as possible consistent with general safety. The advisability of installing an inde- pendent and duplicate system of conductors is also to be con- sidered for lines of importance; this can be done only by put- ting the wires on opposite sides of the track.

The Huber system appears to have been carefully worked out, and at the present time is the best suggestion for a solution

BRACKET CONSTRUCTION ON BLOOMINGTON, JOLIET ELECTRIC RAILWAY

PONTIAC &

of the line problems in connection with the electrification of steam roads. There is one serious objection to the arrangement, but this can be overcome. The contact wire carried from pole top to pole top is liable to break, and some form of support should be devised to prevent the broken ends falling to the ground. A double-catenary suspension system with one wire

MALLEABLE IRON PIN USED ON BLOOMING- TON, PONTIAC & JOL- IET LINE

carried on an insulator at each end of a cross-arm attached to the pole, say a foot from the top, could be provided, and the contact wire could be supported from the apex of triangular supports attached to the two catenary wires. This method would offer advantages over any system of guard wires or cradles which might be devised to catch the broken wire, as it would require three wires to be broken before any part of the system could fall to the ground.

REQdlKEMENTS FOR SAFETY Frequent Supports. — Whatever method of construction is followed, every precaution should be adopted to prevent acci- dents to the public or employees from the loose ends of a broken live wire. Suspensions or supports properly installed every 10 ft. to 15 ft. will lessen this danger.

With bracket construction having poles about 100 ft. apart, there will be no need of a double-catenary suspen- sion for the wire which is to be used with an under-run- ning collector. In such a case, the double suspension would mean twice as many insulators as would be required with the single catenary, thus de- creasing the insulation resistance and increasing the chances for trouble. With what is known as the "tower" method of construc- tion— using long spans — the double catenary, spreading at the points of insulated supports and converging together at the center of the span, will be found desirable. The neces- sity of keeping the wire from swaying will justify the double catenary in this case, and the fact that the number of points of support is reduced by using long spans will more than bal- ance the use of two insulators at each support.

The frequent clips holding the contact wire are not only ad- vantageous from the standpoint of additional safety, but they contribute to the perfnanency of the construction by keeping the wire almost perfectly horizontal at all temperatures, and thus avoiding the bending of the wire up and down at the sup- port points every time the collector passes. The only disadvan- tage to clips holding the wire every few feet is the tendency for the trolley wheel to spark at these points. This is not a serious objection if a collector similar to the bow device is used, in which case there will be no interference between the collector surface and the mechanical clips.

Protection From Sleet. — In a hard sleet storm every attach- ment connected to the wire will naturally be the cause of addi- tional trouble. The arcs due to a coating of ice between the wire and the collector will be much more vicious at 6000 volts to 15,000 volts than at 300 volts, but there is no occasion to become alarmed at the possible danger from this source. In this country one of the high-pressure lines using a trolley wheel on a 3300-volt wire has already passed through a hard siege of sleet; and though the sparking was spectacular, very little damage was done. The frequent trolley supports, however, added considerably to the sparking.

Greased trolley wires are sometimes used to prevent the trouble caused by sleet; it would be interesting to learn the experience of members of the Institute with this device. It is well known that the grease finish of an aluminum wire pre- vents the collection of sleet upon the wire, and it may be pos- sible that a coating of grease on the high-pressure conductor wire would entirely obviate this trouble. It is evident that with a collector taking the current by means of a contact made on the top of the wire, as in the Huber system, the trouble from sleet would be a minimum. In those kinds of sleet storms

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in which icicles are formed and hang from the wire, a top- bearing collector would have every advantage, but when the sleet freezes equally all round the wire, the lighter pressure of the top-bearing contact might put the Huber collector at a disadvantage.

Transmission Lines. — The transmission lines from the power plant to the sub-stations will be at a higher pressure than the trolley pressure, and will therefore require careful treatment. For a road which is to be built economically, a single set of transmission wires serving all of the static transformer stations in parallel will be sufficient. These transmission wires will ordinarily be carried on the tops of the same poles which sup- port the trolley bracket.

The next refinement would be to have a separate set of trans- mission lines from the power house to each sub-station, making it possible to put the overload protective devices on the central station switchboard and thus eliminate the sub-station attend- ance. With this multiplicity of wires and consequent higher first cost adopted, it is but one step further to sepa- rate entirely the two systems and to install two pole lines on the same right of way ; where the electric road is of the high - speed class this should be done.

To be consist- ent, however, in insuring safety to the public, it would be well to advocate as stand- ard practice . the plan of carrying the high-pressure transmission lines entirely around

small towns and cities instead of through them. If the trans- mission lines are too dangerous to be carried on the railroad company's trolley poles, then there is more danger in carrying them along the streets and over the network of telephone wires inside the corporate limits. The problein of the proper regula- tion for this situation is one that will shortly have to be faced.

The first investment in the transmission line, the cost of maintenance, and the loss by leakage — all these can be cut in half by thoroughly grounding one side of the single-phase transinission line so as to use the earth as one leg of the cir- cuit. An actual trial of this suggestion to further simplify the distribution system is under contemplation, and no doubt will furnish valuable information as to its effect on telephone and telegraph lines as well as data in connection with the resistance of the earth with alternating currents.

Grounded Guard Wires. — Where the transmission lines pass over other wires there should be a cradle of grounded wires to prevent a broken transmission line from coming in contact with a foreign wire. This cradle will be of little use unless it is of ample dimensions. Some effort has been inade on European roads so to install grounded wires that the breaking of a con- ductor would at once cause the live end of the wire to make a contact with the grounded guard wire, but in two cases which have come to notice the grounded guard wire caused more trouble than it eliminated ; for this reason it was soon aban- doned. In order to encourage the discussion of the unsettled

DETAIL OF STRAIN INSULATOR SUPPORT USED ON BLOOMINGTON, PONTIAC & JOLIET SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAY

features of line construction for high-pressure electric railroads the following are offered as

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

1. There are no reasons why the standard pressures of the conductor wire for interurban electric lines should not be at least 6000 volts; this is suggested as a standard in order to provide for interchange of equipment.

2. For the electrification of steam roads a pressure of about 15,000 volts on the conductor wire is desirable.

3. For electric interurban lines the present tendency is to- ward the catenary form of suspension, with the trolley over the center of the track. A connection should be made about every 10 ft. between the steel catenary wire and the trolley wire.

4. For steam railroad conditions a contact wire at the side of the track appears to offer the greatest advantages. Some form of construction should be adopted, however, to prevent the falling of the conductor in case it should break.

5. A successful bow collector for interurban work and a contact arm for steam road installations similar to that in use liy the Huber system would allow the location of the contact wire to be standardized.

6. A trolley wire 20 ft. above the center of the track is sug- gested for interurban roads. For steam road electrification tlie height of the contact wire at the side of the track could be made standard at 16 ft.

HIGH-PRESSURE LINE CONSTRUCTION FOR ALTERNATING- CURRENT RAILWAYS*

BY THEODORE VARNEY

The chief advantage to be derived from the direct application of the alternating current to railway service is in the use of high trolley pressures. Having a successful alternating-cur- rent motor, the reinaining problem of greatest importance is the method of supplying current to the car. The third rail, which is largely used in heavy railway work, is obviously unsuited for carrying 3000 volts, 6000 volts or 10,000 volts on the score of insulation and of safety. Moreover, the third-rail construc- tion, whatever be the pressure, is not suitable for terminal yards in which there are many tracks and in which derailments are not unusual. A smash-up would be almost certain to result in tying up the system.

Of the various methods of current supply heretofore em- ployed the overhead conductor is believed to be the only one capable of development into safe or permanent operation with trolley pressures running up into thousands of volts. The present paper will describe some preliminary work which has been carried out on a practical scale with overhead conductors. Tn laying out a suitable overhead high-pressure alternating- current system it was decided to make a radical departure from the present methods of construction wherein the insulation is made only good enough and the supporting structure only strong enough to keep the cars running by the aid of an efii- cient repair department. It was rather the aim to obtain a sys- tem which would be serviceable and reliable for several thou- sand volts and which when once in place would at least equal in durability and cost of maintenance the bridges, track and other portions of a standard railroad. While the exacting con- ditions and heavy traffic of the present steam roads will re- quire for successful operation by electricity a carefully planned and substantial construction, the lighter interurban roads may frequently be equipped with a less expensive system.

Several classes of construction have been designed ; of these tlie least expensive type employing bracket arms will be de- scribed first.

* Paper presented at a meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, New York, March 24, 1905.

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BRACKET-ARM CONSTRUCTION This system consists of a single line of wooden poles spaced well apart and fitted with bracket arms and steel catenary sus- pension cable for supporting the trolley wire. The bracket arm is a T-iron supported by a tension rod at its outer end and fitted at the inner end with lugs which partly em- brace the pole and to which they are bolted with lag

tie-wires. The tension in the messenger cable is ad- justed to give the proper sag, and the trolley wire is pulled up tight enough to take out all kinks and Ijends. Both trolley and messenger are then an- chored. The messen- ger is next clamped to the insulators and the trolley is permanently supported from the messenger by means of hangers or clips which are adjusted in length in such a manner as to hold the trolley hori- zontally. By this means the tension in the trol- ley is slightly relieved and allowance is made

FIG. 1.

screws. Fig. i indicates the construction. The in- inslator is of corrugated porcelain, cemented to a malleable-iron sleeve, which in turn is slipped over the bracket arm and held by clamps and set screws. The porcelain insu- lator has a groove at its center surrounded by a malleable-iron

FIG. 6.— ANCHOR SCHEME

collar similar to a pipe clamp. This collar has an eye on the lower side into which the hooks of a clamp which carries the steel supporting cable or messenger are inserted. Wheel trol- leys will probably be used to a considerable extent with the liiwcT pressures. Guard loops are provided to prevent breakage

FIG. 7.— ANCHOR SCHEME

of the porcelain, in case the trolley should leave the wire under a bracket. The insulator with its fittings is shown in detail in Fig. 2.

The guard loops are also of service in temporarily support- ing the cable while it is being run out and pulled up. The trol- ley and messenger are run out together, and the former is sup- ported from the messenger at occasional points by temporary

FIG. 2.-SINGLE CATENARY, MAIN INSULATOR DETAILS

-T-IRON BRACKET WITH MAIN INSULATOR AND STEADY STRAIN

[0 0 0J

FIG.3.—

HANGER

FIG. 4— SINGLE-CATENARY CURVE PULL-OFF

FIG. 5.-CURVE PULL-OFF

FIG. 9.— CROSS-SPAN MAIN-LINE SUSPENSION

	" 1 1
. 1* ^ f f\ ^- .. . ..■ . .

FIG. 8.-SINGLE CATENARY, SECTION-BREAK INSULATOR FIG. lO.-CROSS-SPAN SUSPENSION AND STEADY STRAIN

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for expansion and contraction. The hangers are stiff and, being placed only 10 ft. apart, correct any tendency of the grooved trolley wire to twist. This insures that the smooth lower sur- face will always be downward, a feature especially necessary

FIG. 11.— DOUBLE CATENARY BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

when bow or sliding trolleys are used. The short distance between hangers also prevents the end of a broken trolley wire from coming dan- gerously near the ground.

The method of supporting the messenger be- low the bracket arm enables a tension rod to be attached to the outer end of the bracket without the necessity of fishing the messenger cable over the arm and under the brace. The cable and trolley may be run out along the track and pulled up in place under the brackets with a minimum amount of labor. Another advantage in this arrangement is the slightly flexible char- acter of the point of support of the messenger ; this is not sufficient to permit any considerable vibration of the span as a whole, but will allow any small vibration set up by the trolley to pass on. It has been noticed in rigidly supported spans of considerable length that a tendency exists for waves to be reflected from these fixed points which, when they reach the trolley, lift the wire from it, thereby causing flashing.

The hanger is illustrated in Fig. 3, and con- sists of a galvanized malleable-iron casting made in ten lengths. It is fitted with a bolted clamp to take the messenger cable, and is secured to the trolley with screws. At intervals of about 1000 ft. and upon curves of large radius, a steadying device, shown in Fig. I, is used. The pull-off used on sharp curves, the method of anchoring and the section-break insulator are shown in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8.

]VtEASUREMENTS ON SPANS IN SERVICE A road 5 miles in length has been in operation for about five months, and upon this road several forms of construction have been installed. One portion has been equipped with 120-ft. spans with sags of 24 ins. in the messenger cable. Another section has spans of about 96 ft. and sags of about 4 ins. In the latter case both messenger and trolley wire are tighter than the former. The effects of temperature upon these two forms of construction are indicated by the following observations during a period of two months :

Date	Temperature Fahr.	Height of Trolley Wire Above Rails
Span No. 1	Span No. 2
		120-ft.	span
12-22-04	33.8°	21 ft. 3.4 in.	21 ft. 5.1 in.
12-28-04	52..3°	21 " 2.0 "	21 " 3.6 "
1- 4-05	16.0°	21 " 4.1 "	21 " 5.5 "
		96-ft.	span
12-22-04	34.7°	20 ft. 7.0 in.	20 ft. 7.5 in.
12-23-04	52.3"	20 " 6.8 "	20 " 7.4 "
1- 4-05	14.7"	20 " 7.4 "	20 " 7.9 "

The greatest temperature variation noted on the i20-ft. spans was 36.3 degs. F., and the corresponding changes in height at the centers of the spans were 2.1 ins. and 1.9 ins., respectively. For the 96-ft. spans the temperature variation was 37.6 degs., and the corresponding changes in height were 0.6 in. and 0.5 in., respectively.

The combined weight of messenger, 000 trolley wire and hangers averages i lb. per foot, which gives a tension in the messenger cable with 120-ft. span and 24-in. sag of about 900 lbs. The tension with 96-ft. span and 4-in. sag is about 3500 lbs.

BEST ARRANGEMENT For best results with this form of construction, both as re- gards cost and operation, the following arrangement is consid- ered satisfactory: The spans should be 120 ft. long on straight track, reducing the length as may be necessary on curves. The

FIG. 13.-DOUBLE CATENARY, CURVE WITH PULL-OFF

messenger to consist of a 0.4375-in. galvanized Bessemer steel cable composed of seven strands and having an ultimate strength of about 6000 lbs. The trolley wire to be 000 grooved section supported in horizontal position by hangers placed 10 ft. apart. The messenger cable is to be pulled up to a minimum

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cold-weather sag of about 11 ins., corresponding to a tension of about 2000 lbs.

CROSS-SPAN CONSTRUCTION For conditions where bracket arms cannot be used, cross- span work may sometimes be employed. For this purpose the arrangement indicated in Figs. 9 and 10 has been designed. The difTerence between this arrangement and the bracket-arm construction is the substitution of a 0.4375-in. steel span cable for the bracket. Other details are practically the same.

BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION For the heavy service requirements of steam roads having from two to four tracks, the construction described above is not adequate ; a more substantial equipment and one which will not encroach upon the present standard clearances is necessary. Obviously, the best form of support to accomplish this result is a bridge long enough to span all tracks with ample clearance on the sides and overhead and stiff enough to carry all of the overhead conductors without undue vibration. Bridges of this

The maximum temperature variation is 32.4 degs., and the corresponding change in height of trolley wire is 2.8 ins. for the 230-ft. span and 5.6 ins. for the 270-ft. span. Fig. 12 repre- sents a curve of 425-ft. radius. In this view the use of double- catenary curve pull-offs is illustrated.

PROPOSED GENERAL PLAN

It was first thought advisable to run the messenger cable over the bridges. Fig. 11 shows this construction. It is necessary, however, to provide an unobstructed view of the signal ap- paratus, and it is accordingly considered preferable to make the bridge high enough to permit the semaphores to be suspended below the truss.

Fig. 13 indicates a signal bridge which has been devised for a four-track road carrying, beside the semaphores, the four sets of cables and trolley wires suspended below the truss. This construction is a decided advantage in erecting, as the cable and trolley wire can be run out along the track and lifted into place. Massive porcelain insulators will be used mounted on

FIG. 13.— SIGNAL BRIDGE DEVISED FOR A FOUR-TRACK ROAD

character are at present in use on many roads to support sema- phores and other signal apparatus.

Fig. II illustrates a section 2500 ft. long of a three-track road, one track of which has been equipped with the bridge construction. The double-catenary system is used, each mes- senger being a 0.4375-in. steel stranded cable. The trolley wire is 000 grooved, and the supporting hangers are placed 10 ft. apart. The average total weight per foot supported by each cable, including its own weight, is 0.91 lbs. The vertical sag in the first span, which is 230 ft. long, is 2.6 ft., and in the second span, which is 270 ft. long, 3.6 ft., both at 26.6 degs. F. The corresponding tension in the messenger cables is 2300 lbs.

The observed variation in heij,ht of trolley wire due to tem- perature change was as follows:

	Temperature Fahr.	Height ot Trolley Wire Above Rails
Date	Span'No. 1	Span No. 2
1-16-05 1- 26-05 2- 9-05	20.6° 6.8° 39.2°	23 ft. 9.1 in. 23 " 10.1 " 23 " 7.3 "	23 ft. 7.1 in. 23 " 9.9 23 " 4.3 "

heavy pipe and fitted with collars having soft lead strips under them. From these the cables will be hung by means of bolted clamps. By anchoring all cables to the bridges after being drawn up to a uniform tension, the effect will be to steady the bridges. For roads having wide rights of way comparatively light bridges steadied with .guy cables may be used, but for most cases a substantial structure similar to those now used for sig- nal towers will probably be preferable. It will be noted, how- ever, that owing to the comparatively long intervals between signals only a few of the bridges carry semaphores ; the others may be made lighter than the one indicated in Fig. 13.

Spans of 300 ft. for straight tracks appear to be satisfactory, not being so long as to permit undue vibration in the cables, and not so short as to require a large number of bridges per mile.

For the messenger cables 0.625-in. extra high strength steel strands are suitable. With a 0000 grooved trolley wire and hangers spaced 10 ft., the average load per foot on each cable is X.43 lbs., and with a vertical sag of 2.7 ft. the tension is 6000 lbs. In a rough climate, wind and sleet will at times increase this tension ; assuming that the tension may be doubled, a fac-

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tor of safety of about 3.5 will still remain, as the breaking strength of the cable is about 40,000 lbs.

For use in localities where milder weather conditions may be assumed, lower grades of steel may be used, having breaking strengths for the same weight per foot of 25,000 lbs. and 19,000

FIG. 14.— DOUBLE CATENARY, AD.TU.?TAP,LE TROLLEY HANGER

lbs. These latter cables are somewhat easier to handle and would be sufficiently strong for most conditions.

The sag given above is taken to he the cold weather condition, and for loo-deg. F. rise the sag would be about 4.4 ft., or a variation of 1.7 ft. In Fig. 13 this allowance is made in the

FIG. 15.— DOUBLE CATENARY, CURVE PULL-OFF

height of the bridge so that tlie lowest point of tlie trolley wire will be 22 ft. above the track. It is not believed that the varia- tion will be this much on account of the giving of the supports and other causes.

For curves the length of span will he decreased, and when necessary to hold the wire in the center of the track radial pull- ofFs will be used, secured to strain insulators. These will be

iiioinited on latticed poles, which in turn will 1je braced hy guy anchors.

For sharp curves the radial pull of all the messenger cables would be severe, and it is intended to provide at the tangent points anchor bridges which will have trusses stiff enough in the horizontal plane to stand the strain of slacking off the cables ' about one-half. These anchor bridges will then Ije held by long guys running out a considerable distance from the bases of the bridges and anchored to cross-ties or channel irons buried in the ground and concreted.

Several details for the doul)le-catenary construction are shown in Figs. 14 and 15. All of the metal parts other than the bridges and trolley wire are galvanized, but as a further protection against depreciation from locomotive funics period- ical painting is advisable.

Regarding the efficiency of the insulation employed, it may be stated that under snow-clad conditions 2500 ft. of iron bridge work and 5 miles of single-catenary construction showed under test a leakage of i amp. at 6000 volts.

CONCLUSION

The foregoing descrilies the actual work which has been car- ried out with the view of developing a system of overhead con- ductors for moderate and heavy traction service which will approach in a far greater degree than heretofore the reliability and permanency of present steam railroad equipments.

Aside from the work described above, 40 miles of road using the single-catenary wood-pole construction have been ])ut in operation in Indiana. This has been in successful running order since the first of this year. The remaining 60 miles of this road will probably be completed in the near future. The pressure is 3300 volts.

DISCUSSION ON BOTH PAPERS

F. N. Waterman, in opening the discussion, gave some par- ticulars of European alternating-current practice. He said that the longest experience with the prol)lem of conveying energy at high tension to a moving vehicle has been that of the Ganz Company, which has now extended over about five years. This has all been with three-phase current at 3000 volts and low frequency, and there have, therefore, been two trolley wires. The preliminary trials on the experimental line at Buda-Pest lasted for something over a year, and the system has been operated in Italy altogether nearly four years, of which two and a half years has been in actual practical service. The original line erected in Buda-Pest, while differing in de- tail, was not essentially altered in the actual construction em- l^loyed on the Valtellina line. During the experimentation at Buda-Pest both single and double-catenary suspension were tried, the construction being essentially similar to that used on the Spindlersfeld line. The cross-suspension type, however, was adopted, the system of double insulators and double sup- ports, shown in Mr. Damon's paper, being used. A consider- able sag is allowed in span wires, and every effort is made to give an elastic and uniform suspension. The insulators as installed are extremely heavy and certainly do not aid in securing this result. Dry wood, impregnated as suggested by Mr. Damon, forms an important feature both of the old and new con- struction.

For long spans and at switches an arrangement similar to the first diagram in the accompanying abstract in Mr. Damon's paper, showing cross suspension, is employed, and a very in- teresting special type of span-wire construction is also used, particularly where the trolley wires are lowered to pass under l)ridges, and hence undue rise and fall with the passage of the trolley would be undesirable. This consists of a catenary type of cross suspension connected at intervals by suspension wires widi an upwardly arched span wire which carries the insulators, thus making a construction wiiich does not sacrifice the sub- stantial elasticity of the line, but holds it accurately in place.

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STREET RAILWAY JOURNAL.

[Vol. XXV. No. 13.

permitting a limited rise and fall with the passage of the trolley.

During the experimental period some difficulty was experi- enced with the overhead construction, and in one or two cases the wire broke, but the chief difficulty was encountered in the tunnels, and was both mechanical and electrical in its nature, since the accumulation of deposits from the steam locomotives continually running through the tunnels during the experi- mental period and the leakage of tunnel roofs caused insula- tion troubles, while owing to the very small clearance of the tunnels, difficulty was experienced in keeping the wire from grounding between supports. This was overcome by shorten- ing the distance between supports and weighting the conduc- tors by clamping small iron rails upon them, these being put on in sections several feet in length in the same manner as a mechanical clip. Although the construction is not by any means heavy, and the workmanship shows the effect of inexperience on the part of the linemen, it has successfully witlistood the wear and tear of use, and so far as the speaker had been able to learn has never been pulled down. In one or two instances at the beginning of the experimental operation, the trolley caught in the suspension wire owing to the improper location of curves and turn-outs, but the result was to break some, portion of the trolley mechanism and leave the line in condition for use.

For their newest construction the double-catenary type is used, no span-wire supports whatever being employed, and two messenger wires serving to carry both contact conductors. The spacing of the conductors is maintained by wooden insulator bars upon which the insulators proper are carried, and to which supports from the messenger wires are attached. The insulators have been very much lightened by the substitution of pressed steel for malleable-iron castings. The messenger wires are carried on iron girders, spanning the track, the dis- tance between girders being 130 ft., and the distance between points of attachment to the wire, 65 ft., there being two sup- ports between girders and none immediately under them.

The block and signal system is interconnected directly with the contact conductors, and the entrance of a train onto a sec- tion in face of a danger signal disconnects the section, but the speaker was unable to learn the details of the system. In addi- tion to this, the conductors within the limits of the stations, and for a deffiiite distance on each side, are dead at all times, save when a train is actually approaching or starting from a station. These sections can only be thrown in by the signal operator. It is customary for express trains to coast over with trolleys down, and it is the usual practice for trains moving at full speed to lower the trolleys at all switches, except such trains as are off from schedule and are making up time.

The feature of double insulation, which is used throughout, has proved particularly useful in rendering possible the break- age of a single insulator without causing interference with traffic until repairs can be effected. This feature, while of course not a novelty, seems particularly worthy of perpetuation in high-tension lines where special liability to mechanical break-down exists. The idea of cutting out sections at stations and the extension of the same idea carried out on the Spin- dlersfeld line, of cutting out sections under bridges where the right of way passes under highways, seem also worthy of con- sideration, at least for special cases.

The Valtellina system seems to have been free from trouble with the overhead construction to a remarkable extent, not- withstanding the fact that two overhead wires are required, and this fact emphasizes the importance of using a trolley con- tact device which cannot get off from the wire, and thus either break insulators or pull down the construction.

The trolley itself is a single apparatus and not two inde- pendent devices. It requires, however, two separate bases and poles, as would be the case were there two single trolleys. The outer ends of the two poles are connected by a continuous bar of impregnated wood, the center portion of which for a dis-

tance of about 8 ins. is the full diameter of the rolling con- tacts. On either side the diameter is reduced to receive two contact cylinders which are slipped over and supported on in- sulated ball bearings, the current being taken off by carbon con- tact rings at the ends and carried by flexible jumpers to the trolley poles. The cross bar with its contact rollers is flexibly connected to the ends of the arms by horizontal spiral springs, permitting simultaneous contact with the two wires, even where they are at widely different heights.

The rollers originally put out were of copper and gave trou- ble by elongation under the hammering of service, and so bind- ing the bearings. Ganz & Company now send out steel rollers copper plated, and claim a wear of 10,000 km per roller, or 20,000 km per vehicle, before replating becomes necessary. The copper rollers gave a life of 30,000 km to 40,000 km per vehicle, but then had to be entirely renewed. The operating company prefers bronze, and finds no trouble from elongation.

The trolley poles are supported by spiral springs in tension, the tension being put on from within the vehicle by compressed air. .With this device the slow-moving trains take 300 amps, without sparking or burning the wire. The normal speed of passenger trains is 40 m.p.h., and the maximum current that has been taken at that speed is about 240 amps., at which the collectors worked satisfactorily. The highest speed at which the device has been tested is 62 m.p.h., taking off a current of about IDO amps. This test was made without alteration of